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COMPENDIOUS INTRODUCTION 



STUDY OF THE BIBLE 

BEING AN 

ANALYSIS 

OP 

1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CRITICAL STUDY AND KNOWLEDGE 

OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES," IN FOUR VOLUMES, 

BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 



BY THOMAS HARTWELL HORNE 




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NetD-Ijork: 

PUBLISHED BY LANE & SCOTT, 

200 Mulberry-street. 

JOSEPH LON6KING, PRINTER. 

1850. 



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ADVERTISEMENT 



LAST ENGLISH EDITION 



The present Edition has been carefully revised and cor- 
rected throughout. A few passages, which were consider- 
ed too critical to be interesting to general readers, have 
been omitted ; and by condensing that part which treats 
on the Interpret' [ion of Scripture, the Author has obtain- 
ed room, withou increasing the price of the volume, foi 
various additions : — particularly, a Table of the principal 
Predictions relative to the Person and Offices of the Mes ■ 
siah, with their Fulfilment, and also a Geographical 
Index, abridged from his larger work, of the most remark- 
able places mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, especially 
in the New Testament. These additions, the Author 
trusts, will be found to render this Manual more perma- 
nently useful as a Compendious Introduction to the Study 
of the Bible, and not unworthy a continuance of that pa- 
tronage with which his labours have hitherto been ho- 
noured. 



PREFACE. 



The little Manual, now offered to the Public, has 
been undertaken in consequence of requests long since 
communicated to the Author, and frequently repeated, 
that he would prepare an Analysis, or Abridgment of 
the four octavo volumes of his larger " Introduction to 
the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scrip- 
tures f as an assistant to the studies of Gentlemen, at 
the Universities and other Seminaries of Theological 
Literature, as also of those individuals who may re- 
spectively possess that work, and to whom such an 
auxiliary would be acceptable. At the same time, the 
present volume has been so arranged, as to form a 
Comprehensive Guide to the Study of the Bible, adapt- 
ed to the use of general readers : it will be found 
to contain, 

I. A Summary of the Evidences of the Genuine- 
ness, Inspiration, &c. of the Holy Scriptures, refuting 
the most modern objections of Infidels ; 

II. An Outline of the Literary History and Inter- 
pretation of the Bible ; 

III. A Compendium of Biblical Geography and 
Antiquities ; and 

IV. Introductory Prefaces to the several Books of 
Scripture. 

In preparing this Manual for the press, the order of 
the larger Introduction has generally been followed ; 
the Parts and Books, into which it is divided, corres- 



PREFACE. 



ponding with the volumes, and parts of volumes in that 
work. Those bibliographical, critical, and other de- 
tails only have been omitted, which either would not 
admit of abridgment, or which would be uninteresting 
to the generality of English readers. 

The Author has subjoined, in an Appendix, a List of 
Select Chapters of the Bible, forming an Epitome of 
the Old and New Testaments, adapted to perusal in 
the family, or in private, together with chronological 
and other tables ; which he trusts, with the Divine 
blessing on his labours, will contribute to facilitate the 
devout and attentive reading of " the Holy Scriptures, 
which alone are able to make us wise unto salvation, 
through faith which is in Christ Jesus." 



TABLE OF CONTENTS, 



PART I. 

ON THE GENUINENESS, AUTHENTICITY, INSPIRATION, ETC., OF THE 
HOLY SCRIPTURES. 

Tage. 
Chapter I. On the Necessity, &c. of a Divine Revelation ... I 

Chapter II. On the Genuineness find Authenticity of the Books of 

the Old and New Testament 4 

Sect. I. Genuineness and Authenticity of the Old Testament - ibid. 
Sect. II. Genuineness and Authenticity cf the New Testa- 
ment •... 6 

Sect. III. On the uncorrupted Preservation of the Books of the 

Old and New Testament ; 8 

Chapter HI. On the Credibility of the Old and New Testaments • 10 
Sect. I. Direct Evidences of the Credibility of the Old and New 

Testaments ibid. 

Sect. II. Testimonies to the Credibility of the Old and New Tea- 
taments, from Natural and Civil History - - - • 14 
§ 1. Testimonies from Natural and Civil History to the Cre- 
dibility of the Old Testament ibid. 

§ 2. Testimonies of Profane Writers to the Credibility of the 

New Testament 19 

§ 3. Collateral Testimonies to the Truth of the Facts record 
ed in the Scriptures, from ancient Coins, Medals, and Mar- 
bles 2i 

Chapter IV. All the Books of the Old and New Testaments are of 

Divine Authority, and their Authors are divinely inspired • 24 

Sect. I. Preliminary Considerations ibid. 

Sect. II. The Miracles related in the Old and New Testaments 
are Proofs that the Scriptures were given by Inspiration of 

God 25 

Sect. III. On Prophecy 37 

Class I. Prophecies relating to the Jewish Nation in parti- 
cular 39 

Class II. Prophecies relating to the Nations or Empires that 

—were neighbouring to the Jews 41 

Class III. Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah - • 42 
Class IV. Prophecies by Jesus Christ and his Apostles - - 43 
Refutation of various Objections against Prophecy • - 45 

Chapter V. Internal Evidences of the Inspiration of the Scriptures 47 
Sect. I. The System of Doctrine and the Moral Precepts, which 
are delivered in the Scriptures, are so excellent and so per- 
fectly holy, that the persons who published them to the 
World, must have derived them from a purer and more ex- 
alted Source than their own Meditations .... ibid. 
a 1. A Concise View of the Religion of the Patriarchal Times 48 
§ 2. A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of the 

Mosaic Dispensation 49 

§ 3. A Summary View o<" the Doctrines and Precepts of the 

Gospel Dispensation • • • 63 

I* 



VJ CONTENTS. 

S 4. On the Objections of Unbelievers to the Doctrine and 
Morality of the Bible 53 

Sect II. The wonderful Harmony and intimate Connexion 
subsisting between all the Parts of Scripture are a further 
Proof of its Authority and Divine Original 58 

Sect. III. The Preservation of the Scriptures is a Proof of their 
Truth and Divine Origin ibid. 

Sect. IV. The Tendency of the Scriptures to promote the present 
and eternal Happiness of Mankind constitutes another unan- 
swerable Proof of their Divine Inspiration .... ibid. 

Sect. V. The peculiar Advantages possessed by the Christian 
Religion over all other Religions, a Demonstrative Evidence 
of its Divine Origin and Authority 60 

Sect. VI. Inability to answer all objections, no just cause for 
rejecting the Scriptures.— Unbelievers in Divine Revelation 
more credulous than Christians ... - • 63 

Chapter VI. Recapitulation. — Moral Qualifications for the Study of 

the Scriptures 64 



PART II. 



ON THE LITERARY HISTORY, CRITICISM, AND INTERPRETATION OF 
THE SCRIPTURES. 

Book I.— on the literary history and criticism of the scriptures. 



Chapter I. On the Original Languages of Scripture 67 
Sect. I. On the Hebrew Language, and the Samaritan Penta- 
teuch ibid. 

Sect. II. On the Greek Language 69 

Chapter II. On the Manuscripts of the Bible 71 

Sect. I. On the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Old Testament • ibid. 
Sect. II. Account of Greek Manuscripts containing the Old and 

New Testaments 74 

Chapter III. On the Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in 

the Old and New Testaments 78 

Sect. I. Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in the Old 

Testament ibid. 

Sect. II. Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in the 

New Testament 81 

Chapter IV. On the Ancient Versions of the Scriptures 82 
Sect. I. Of the Targums or Chaldee Paraphrases - - - ibid. 
Sect. II. Ancient Greek Versions of the Old Testament - . 83 
Sect. III. Ancient Oriental Versions of the New Testament - 86 
Sect. IV. Ancient Western Versions of the Scriptures - . 88 
Sect. V. Use and Application of Ancient Versions 89 
Chapter V. On the Modern Versions of the Scriptures 90 
Sect. I. On the Modern Latin Versions of the Old and New Tes- 
taments ibid. 

Sect. II. Versions in the Modern Languages of Europe, Asia, 

Africa, and America 92 

Chapter VI. On the Various Readings occurring in the Old and 

New Testaments 100 

Chapter vn. On the Quotations from the Old Testament in the 

New ... 101 



CONTENTS. v Jj 

Page. 
Chapter VHL On the Poetry oi the Hebrews « • ■ -108 

Chapter IX. On Harmonies of Scripture • 11 

Book U. — on the interpretation op scripture. 

Chapter I. Of the Literal, Grammatical, or Historical Sense of 

Scripture 113 

Sect. I. Rules for Investigating the Meaning of Words gene- 
rally 114 

Sect. JI. Aids for Investigating the Meaning of Words in com- 
bination 115 

§ 1. Of the Scope and Context ibid. 

§ 2. Analogy of Scripture or Parallel Passages * - -118 

§ 3. Of the Analogy of Faith 121 

§ 4. Historical Circumstances 123 

§ 5. Ancient Versions -127 

§ 6. On Commentators ibid. 

Chapter II. On the Interpretation of the Figurative Language of 

Scripture 129 

Sect. I. General Observations on the Interpretation of Tropes 
and Figures ibid. 

Sect. II. On the Interpretation of the Metonymies occurring 
in Scripture 131 

Sect. III. On the Interpretation of Scripture Metaphors and 
Allegories • 134 

Sect. IV. On the Interpretation of Scripture Parables • » 136 

Sect. V. On Scripture Proverbs - -138 

Sect VI. Concluding Observations on the Figurative Language 

of Scripture 139 

Chapter III. On the Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture • • 140 

Sect. I. General Observations on the Spiritual or Mystical Sense 
of Scripture ibid. 

Sect. II. Rules for the Spiritual or Mystical Interpretation of 
Scripture 141 

Sect. III. On the Interpretation of Types - - - • • 142 
Chapter IV. On the Interpretation of Scripture Prophecies • • 144 
Chapter V. On the Doctrinal, Moral, and Practical Interpretation 

of Scripture • 149 

Sect. I. On the Doctrinal Interpretation of the Scriptures - ibid. 

Sect. II. On the Interpretation of the Moral Parts of Scripture • 151 

Sect. III. On the Interpretation of the Promises and Threaten- 
ings of Scripture 152 

Sect. IV. On the Practical Reading of Scripture • • .154 



PART III. 

A COMPENDIUM OP BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ANTiaUITIES. 
Book I. — a sketch op the geography op the holy land 

Chapter I. Historical Geography of the Holy Land .... 158 
Chapter II. Physical Geography of the Holy Land • • 169 

Book II. — political antiquities op the jews. 

Chapter I. Different Forms of Government, from the Patriarchal 

Times to the Babylonish Captivity 182 



VJI1 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
Chapter II. Political State of the Jews, after their Return from the 
Babylonish Captivity, to the Subversion of their Civil and 

Ecclesiastical Polity 186 

Chapter III. Courts of Judicature, Legal Proceedings, Criminal 

Law, and Punishments of the Jews 191 

Sect. I. Jewish Courts of Judicature and Legal Proceedings - ibid. 
Sect. II. Roman Judicature, Manner of Trial, and Treatment <3>f 

Prisoners • 193 

Sect. III. On the Criminal Law of the Jews - • - -195 
Sect. IV. On the Punishments mentioned in the Scriptures - 200 
Chapter IV. Jewish and Roman Modes of computing Time, men- 
tioned in the Scriptures 204 

Chapter V. Of the Tributes and Taxes mentioned in the Scriptures. 

Contracts — how made 208 

Chapter VI. Of the Military Affairs of the Jews, and other Nations 

mentioned in the Scriptures 209 

Book III. — sacred antiquities of the jews and other nations 

MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 

Chapter I. Of Sacred Places . • • - • » - . 214 

Sect. I. Of the Tabernacle ibid. 

Sect. II. Of the Temple 217 

Sect. III. Of the High Places, Proseuchfe, or Oratories of the 

Jews 222 

Sect. IV. On the Synagogues of the Jews 223 

Chapter II. Sacred Persons ........ 225 

Sect, I. Of the Jewish Church and its Members - • • ibid. 
Sect. II. On the Ministers of the Temple and other Ecclesiasti- 
cal or Sacred Persons 226 

Chapter III. Sacred Things.— On the Sacrifices and other Offer- 
ings of the Jews - 231 

Chapter IV. Sacred Times and Seasons observed by the Jews • • 236 
Chapter V. Sacred Obligations and Duties. — Of Oaths. — Nature and 

Different Sorts of Vows 242 

Chapter VI. On the Corruptions of Religion by the Jews . - 245 
Book IV. — domestic antiquities of the jews and other nations 

INCIDENTALLY MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 

Chapter I. On the Dwellings of the Jews 250 

Chapter II. On the Dress of the Jews 253 

Chapter HI. Marriage Customs of the Jews 254 

Chapter IV. Birth, Education, &c. of Children * - 256 
Chapter V. Condition of Slaves, and the Customs relating to them, 

nentioned or alluded to in the New Testament • . 257 

Chapter VI. Domestic Customs and Usages of the Jews - . • 259 

Chapter VII. On the Occupations, Arts, and Sciences of the Jews • 262 

Sect. I. Agriculture and Horticulture of the Jews - - . ibid. 

Sect. II. On the Arts and Sciences of the Jews .... 265 
Chapter VIII. Allusions to the Theatres, Theatrical Performances, 

and to the Grecian Games in the New Testament - - - 271 

Chapter IX T ewish Mode of treating the Dead.*— Funeral Rites • 272 



CONTENTS. 

PART IV. 

ON THE ANALYSIS OF SCRIPTURE. 

Book I. — analysis of the old testament. 



Chapter I. On the Pentateuch • 

Sect. I. On the Book of Genesis • 
Sect. IT. On the Book of Exodus - 
Sect. III. On the Book of Leviticus 
Sect. IV. On the Book of Numbers 
Sect. V. On the Book of Deutoronomy 

Chapter II. On the Historical Books - 
Sect. I. On the Book of Joshua • 
Sect. II. On the Book of Judges - 
Sect. Ill On the Book of Ruth 
Sect. IV. On the Two Books of Samuel 
Sect. V. On the Two Books of Kings - 
Sect. VI. On the Two Books of Chronicles 
Sect. VII. On the Book of Ezra - 
Sect. VIII. On the Book of Nehemlah • 
Sect. IX. On the Book of Esther 

Chaptfr III. On the Poetical Books • 
Sect. I. On the Book of Job - 
Sect. II. On the Book of Psalms - 
Sect. III. On the Book of Proverbs 
Sect. IV. On the Book of Ecclesiastes - 
Sect. V. On the Song of Solomon 



and 



Chapter rv. General Observations on the Prophets 

Writings 

Chapter V. On the Prophets who nourished before the Babylonian 
Captivity 

Sect. I. On the Book of the Prophet Jonah 

Sect. II. On the Book of the Prophet Amos 

Sect. III. On the Book of the Prophet Hosea 

Sect. IV. On the Book of the Prophet Isaiah 

Sect. V. On the Book of the Prophet Joel - 

Sect. VI. On the Book of the Prophet Micah 

Sect. VII. On the Book of the Prophet Nahum . 

Sect. VIII. On the Book of the Prophet Zephaniah 

Chapter VI. Of the Prophets who nourished near to and during the 

Babylonian Captivity 

Sect. I. On the book of the Prophet Jeremiah - 
Sect. II. On the Lamentations of Jeremiah 
Sect. III. On the Eook of the Prophet Habakkuk 
Sect. IV. On the Book of the Prophet Daniel 
Sect. V. On the Book of the Prophet Obadiah 
Sect. VI. On the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel 

Chapter VII. On the Prophets who flourished after the return 

Jews from Babylon 

Sect. I. On the Book of the Prophet Haggai 
Sect. II. On the Book of the Prophet Zechariah 
Sect. III. On the Book of the Prophet Malachi • 

Chapter VIII. On the Apocrypha 



their 



of the 



x CONTENTS. 

Book II.*— analysis op the new testament. 

tarn. 

Chapter I. On the Historical Books of the New Testament . - 316 

Sect. I. On the Name and Number of the Canonical Gospels • ibid. 

Sect. II. On the Gospel by Saint Matthew 316 

Sect III. On the Gospel by Saint Mark • • • • 317 

Sect. IV. On the Gospel by Saint Luke 318 

Sect. V. On the Gospel by Saint John 319 

Sect. VI. On the Acts of the Apostles 321 

Chapter IT. On the Epistolary or Doctrinal Writings of the New 

Testament, particularly those of Saint Paul .... 323 
Sect. I. A Brief Account of the Apostle Paul. — Nature of the 

Epistolary Writings of the New Testament .... ibid. 

Sect. II. On the Epistle to the Romans 326 

Sect. III. On the First Epistle to the Corinthians • • 328 

Sect. IV. On the Second Epistle to the Corinthians ... 329 

Sect. V. On the Epistle to the Galatians 330 

Sect. VI. On the Epistle to the Ephesians ... ■ ibid. 

Sect. VII. On the Epistle to the Philippians .... 331 

Sect. VIII. On the Epistles to the Colossians .... ibid. 
Sect. IX. On the First Epistle to the Thessalonians • • -332 

Sect. V. On the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians • • 333 

Sect. XI. On the First Epistle to Timothy 334 

Sect. XII. On the Second Epistle to Timothy .... 335 

Sect. XIII. On the Epistle to Titus 336 

Sect. Xrv. On the Epistle to Philemon 337 

Sect. XV. On the Epistle to the Hebrews 338 

Chapter III. On the Catholic Epistles 339 

Sect. I. On the Genuineness and Authenticity of the Catholic 

Epistles ibid. 

Sect. II. On the General Epistle of James 340 

Sect. III. On the first General Epistle of Peter • • • 341 

Sect. IV. On the second General Epistle of Peter • • • 343 

Sect V. On the first General Epistle of Saint John - • • ibid. 

Sect. VI. On the Second and third Epistles of Saint John • • 345 

Sect. VII. On the General Epistle of Saint Jude .... 346 

Chapter IV. On the Revelation of Saint John the Divine • 347 



APPENDIX. 

No. I. Tables of Weights, Measures, and Money, mentioned In the 

Bible 351 

H. A Table of the Order and Dates of the Books of the New Tes- 
tament 353 

III. A Table of the Psalms, classed according to their several sub- 

jects, and adapted to the Purposes of Private Devotion - 354 

IV. A Table or List of Select Chapters of the Holy Scriptures, 

forming an Epitome of the Bible, and adapted to Family or 

Private Reading 355 

V. A List comprising the most necessary works upon the Holy 

Scriptures 363 

VI. A concise Chronological Table of the Principal Epochs men- 
tioned in the Old and New Testaments .... 364 
VII. A Table of the principal Prophecies relative to the Messiah, 

with their accomplishment as related in the New Testament 369 
INDEXES. 

1. Geographical Index of the principal Places mentioned In the 

Scriptures, especially the New Testament .... 375 

2. Index of Matters 386 



COMPENDIOUS INTRODUCTION 

TO 

THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE, 

ETC., ETC 

PART I 

ON THE GENUINENESS, AUTHENTICITY, INSPIRATION, ETC., OF THE 
HOLY SCRIPTURES. 

CHAPTER I. 

ON THE NECESSITY, ETC., OP A DIVINE REVELATION 

I. Revelation defined. 

Revelation is a discovery by God to man of Himself or 
of his will, over and above what He has made known by 
the light of nature, or reason. 

II. A Divine Revelation possible. 

No one, who believes that there is a God of infinite 
wisdom, power, and knowledge, can reasonably deny the 
possibility of His making a revelation of Himself, and of 
his will to men, in an extraordinary way, different from 
the discoveries made by men themselves, in the mere 
natural and ordinary use of their own powers. To ad- 
mit the existence of a God, and to deny him such a power, 
is a glaring contradiction. Though we cannot explain 
in what manner ideas originate, or are impressed upon the 
human mind ; yet, since we know that this is effected in 
various ways, it is reasonable to suppose that God can 
act upon the mind, in order to impart to us the know- 
ledge of his will. And, if so, he can do it in such a man- 
ner as to give those, to whom such revelation is made, an 
assurance that it proceeds from himself. 



2 NECESSITY OF A 

III. The Probability of such Revelation appears from 
the two following arguments : 

1. From the general sense of mankind in every age, 
who believed that divine revelations were probable : and 
from the credit given to pretended revelations, thus evin- 
cing a consciousness of their own ignorance, and the need 
of a supernatural illumination. 

2. From the confession of some of the wisest philoso 
phers, that they stood in need of such a revelation, and 
the hope they expressed that God would at some future 
time vouchsafe to make one. 

IV. Divine revelation is not only possible and proba- 
ble, but NECESSARY I 

1. From the utter inability of mere human reason to 
attain any certain knowledge of the will or law of God, of 
the true happiness of man, or of a future state, as is evi- 
dent from the endless differences and inconsistencies, which 
prevailed among the most celebrated ancient philosophers, 
some of whom taught immoral doctrines, while the influ- 
ence of all was very inconsiderable, both in rectifying the 
notions, and in reforming the lives of mankind. Thus 

(1.) Their ideas respecting the Nature and Worship of God 
were dark, confused, and imperfect. 

(2.) They were ignorant of the true account of the Creation 
of the World. Also, 

(3.) Of the origin of Evil, and the cause of the depravity 
and misery which actually exist among mankind. 

(4.) Of any Method by which a Reconciliation could be ef- 
fected between God and man. 

(5.) Of Divine Grace and Assistance towards our attainment 
of Virtue and perseverance in it. 

(6.) They had only dark and confused notions of the Sum- 
mum Bonum or Supreme Felicity of man : 

(7.) They had weak and imperfect notions concerning the 
Immortality of the Soul ; and also concerning 

(8.) The Certainty of the Eternal Rewards and Punish- 
ments of a Future State, and the Resurrection of the Body. 

2. From the defective instructions of the best of the 
philosophers, which, moreover, were unsuited to the com- 
mon people, and which they wanted authority to enforce 
in practice. 

3. From the gross ignorance and idolatry universally 
prevalent among unenlightened heathen nations. 



DIVINE REVELATION. 3 

V. Refutation of the Objection that Philosophy and 
Right Reason are sufficient to instruct men in their duty. 

Answer 1. It is a fact, that the doctrines of Christ have had 
a more powerful influence upon men, than all the reasonings 
of philosophers: and though modern opposers of Revelation 
ascribe the ignorance and corruption of the heathen, not to the 
insufficiency of the light of reason, but to their non- improve- 
ment of that light ; yet, if this were true, it would not prove 
that there is no need of a revelation, because it is certain 
that the philosophers wanted some higher assistance than that 
of reason. 

2. Notwithstanding the pretences of modern deists to su- 
perior wisdom, it is a fact that they have borrowed almost all 
their wise and true observations from divine revelation. It is 
one thing to perceive that the rules of life, which are laid be- 
fore us, are agreeable to reason, and another thing to discover 
them by the mere light of reason. 

3. Besides, the speculations of modern deists, concerning 
religion, are so glaringly contradictory, and their ethical pre- 
cepts are so utterly subversive of every principle of morality, 
as to demonstrate the necessity of a divine revelation now, in 
order to lead mankind to the knowledge of God, and of their 
duty to one. another. 

VI. Possible Means of affording a Revelation. 
There appears to be only two ways of doing this, viz. 1. 

An immediate Revelation to each individual ; or, 2. A 
Commission given by God to certain persons to make 
known his will, accompanied with indisputable credentials 
of their being delegated by him. The former method 
would be ineffectual : for either the freedom of the will 
must be destroyed, or else it would fill the world with con- 
tinual impostures and pretences to revelation. The latter 
method, therefore, is the most eligible and satisfactory ; 
and writing was the best means of transmitting such a 
revelation, on account of 

1. The uncertainty and insecurity of oral tradition. 

2. The greater security and permanence of writing. 

3. The fairness and openness, which is the result of 
writing. 

4. The importance of the matter, the variety of the 
subjects, and the design of the institutions contained in 
the books, which Jews and Christians receive as contain- 
ing a divine revelation. 



GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY 



CHAPTER II. 

ON THE GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY OP THS BOOKS OF THE OLD AND NEW 

TESTAMENT. 

Section I.— Genuineness and Authenticity of the Old Testament. 

I. Genuineness and Authenticity denned. 

A Genuine Book is one, that is written by the person 
whose name it bears. — An Authentic Book is one in 
which matters of fact are related, as they really hap- 
pened. 

There are two classes of proof; 1. Historical Testi- 
mony or External Evidence ; and 2. Internal Evidence 
arising from an examination of the Books themselves. 

II. Historical Testimony, or External Evidence. 

1. The persons, contemporary with any Hebrew wri- 
ter whose books they transcribed, knew by whom they 
were written ; and, having a certain knowledge of the 
author and of the age in which he lived, delivered them 
to their descendants, and these again to their posterity. 

2. The small number of books, extant at the time when 
the books of the Old Testament were written, would render 
fault impossible. 

3. The Hebrews or Jews, by testifying that these books 
are genuine, become witnesses against themselves, and 
their testimony consequently is unexceptionable. 

4. A particular tribe was consecrated for the express 
purpose of watching over the preservation of these books. 

5. The testimony of the ancient Jews, of which we have 
an unbroken chain ; and the fact that the Greek version 
of the Old Testament, usually called the Septuagint, was 
executed at Alexandria two hundred and eighty-two years 
before the Christian era. 

III. Internal Evidence, arising from an examination 
of the Books themselves. 

Arg. 1. The difference in language, style, and manner 
of writing, proves that the Books of the Old Testament 
must have been written at various times and by different 
persons. As Hebrew ceased to be spoken as a living 
language soon after the Babylonish captivity, all those 
books must be nearly as ancient as that captivity ; and 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT g 

as they could not all be written in the same age, some must 
be considerably more ancient. 

Arg. 2. The multitude of minutely particular circum- 
stances of time, place, persons, &c, mentioned in the books 
of the Old Testament, is a further argument both of their 
genuineness and authenticity ; because no forger of false 
accounts superabounds in such peculiarities, or could fur- 
nish them; and because such forgeries or falsehoods could 
be easily detected and exposed. 

IV. Proofs of the genuineness and authenticity of the 
Pentateuch in particular. 

This is manifest. 

1. From the language in which it is written, the sim- 
plicity and archaisms of which prove it to be the earliest 
of all the Hebrew sacred books. 

2. From the Nature of the Mosaic Law, as contained 
in the four last books of Moses. 

These books contain a system of ceremonial and moral laws , 
which, unless we reject the authority of all history, were ob- 
served by the Israelites, from their departure out of Egypt until 
their dispersion at the taking of Jerusalem. Their civil and re- 
ligious polity are so inseparably connected, and many of their 
institutions are so connected with historical facts, as to render 
forgery impossible. 

3. From the United Historical Testimony of Jews and 
Gentiles 

[i.] Jewish Testimony: — Jesus Christ, Ezra, Daniel, Solo- 
mon, David, Moses, and others ; to which is to be added the 
fact, that the law of Moses was received by both Jews and Sa- 
maritans before they became divided into two kingdoms. 

[ii.] Gentile Testimony ;— Manetho, Eupolemus, Artapanus, 
Tacitus, Diodorus, Siculus, Strabo, Justin, the abbreviator of 
Trogus, Juvenal, and many other writers, testify that Moses 
was the leader of the Jews, and the founder of their laws. The 
great critic J^onginus, and Numenius, a Pythagorean philoso- 
pher of Apamea, in Syria, both speak highly of Moses : and 
Porphyry admitted the genuineness of the Pentateuch. The 
Egyptian, Greek, and Roman authors concur in relating the 
tradition respecting the creation, the fall of man, the deluge, 
and the dispersion of mankind. 

4. From the contents of the Pentateuch. 

The frequent genealogies prove that it was composed 
by a writer of very early date, and from original mate- 
rials. 



Q GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY 

The geographical details of places bespeak a writer 
personally present at the transactions recoided. 

The frequent repetitions, which occur in the Penta- 
teuch, and the neglect of order in delivering the precepts, 
are strong proofs, that it has come down to us precisely 
as it was written by Moses ; to which may be added co- 
incidences, so minute, latent, indirect, and undesigned, 
that they could only have been produced by reality and 
truth influencing the mind and the pen of the legislator. 



Section n. — Genuineness and Authenticity of the New Testament. 

I. General Title of the N*ew Testament. 

Every thing we know concerning the belief, worship, 
manners, and discipline of the first Christians, corresponds 
with the contents of the books of the New Testament now 
extant, and which therefore are most certainly the primi- 
tive instructions which they received. The collection of 
these books is known by the appellation of the New Tes- 
tament or New Covenant, (because it contains the terms 
of the new covenant, upon which God is pleased to offer 
salvation through the mediation of Jesus Christ;) in op- 
position to the doctrines, precepts, and promises of the 
Mosaic dispensation, which Saint Paul terms the Old 
Covenant. 

II. Canon of the New Testament. 

The records, thus collectively termed the New Testa- 
ment, consist of twenty-seven books, composed on various 
occasions, and at different times and places, by eight dif- 
ferent authors contemporary with Jesus Christ, whose his- 
tory they either relate, together with the first propagation 
of his religion, or unfold the doctrines, principles, and 
precepts of Christianity. 

III. The Genuineness and Authenticity of the New 
Testament are proved, not only from arguments which 
demonstrate that it is not spurious, but also from positive 
evidence arising from the impossibility of forgery, and 
from direct external or historical evidence. 

Of all the grounds, that either have been or may be as- 
signed for denying a work, to be genuine, not one can just- 
ly be applied to the New Testament : for, 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 7 

1. No one doubted of its genuineness and authenticity 
when it first appeared. 

2. No ancient accounts are on record, whence we may 
conclude it to be spurious. 

3. No considerable period of time elapsed after the 
death of the Apostles, in which the New Testament was 
unknown. On the contrary, it is mentioned not only by 
their contemporaries, but also by succeeding writers. 

4. No arguments can be brought in its disfavour from 
the nature of its style, which is exactly such as might be 
expected from the writers of its several books. 

5. No facts are recorded, which happened after the 
death of the apostles. 

6. No doctrines or precepts are maintained, which con- 
tradict their known tenets. 

IV. Positive Evidence : 

1. The absolute impossibility of forgery arising from 
the nature of the thing itself; because it is impossible to 
establish forged writings as authentic where there are per- 
sons strongly inclined and qualified to detect fraud, as was 
the case both with Jews and Gentiles. 

2. External or Historical Evidence, 

[i.] The Books of the New Testament are quoted or alluded 
to, times innumerable, by a series of Christian writers as well 
as by adversaries of the Christian faith, who may be traced 
back in regular succession from the present time to the aposto- 
lic age. 

[ii.] The Ancient Versions of the new testament are another 
important evidence for its genuineness and authenticity, as well 
as of its antiquity ; some of them (as the Syriac and several 
Latin versions) being made so early as the close of the first, or 
at the beginning of the second century. 

3. Internal Evidence of the Genuineness and Authen- 
ticity of the New Testament. 

[i.] The Character of the Writers of the New Testament : 

They are said to have been Jews by birth, and of the Jewish 

religion, and immediate witnesses of the events which they have 

recorded. And every page of their writings corresponds with 

their actual character. 

[ii.J The Language and Style. — The Langicage is Greek, 
which was a kind of universal language, just as the French 
now is : but it is Hebrew-Greek, i. e. Greek intermixed with 
many peculiarities from the native dialect of the Jews of Pales- 
tine, and consequently such as we might expect from the per- 



g GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY 

sons, to whom the several parts of the New Testament are 
ascribed. 

The Style or manner of writing, too, is such as shows that its 
authors were born and educated in the Jewish religion. 

[iii.] The Circumstantiality of the narrative, and the 
coincidence of the accounts delivered in the New Testament 
with the history of those times, are also an indisputable internal 
evidence of its authenticity. 



Section III.— On the Uncorrupted Preservation of the Books of the Old and 
New Testament. 

I. The Uncorrupted Preservation of the Old Testa- 
ment is proved from the impossibility of its being cor- 
rupted: for 

1. There is no proof or vestige whatever of any pre- 
tended alteration : if the Jews had wilfully corrupted the 
books of the Old Testament before the time of Christ and 
his apostles, the prophets would not have passed such an 
heinous offence in silence : and, if they had been corrupt- 
ed in the time of Christ and his apostles, these would no* 
have failed to censure the Jews. If they had been muti- 
lated or corrupted after the time of Christ, the Jews 
would unquestionably have expunged the falsified prophe- 
cies concerning Christ, which were cited by him and by 
his apostles. 

2. In fact, neither before nor after the time of Christ 
could the Jews corrupt the Hebrew Scriptures ; for, before 
that event, any forgery or material corruption would be 
rendered impossible by the reverence paid to these books 
by the Jews themselves, the publicity given to their con- 
tents by the reading of the law in public and in private, 
and by the jealousies subsisting between the Jews and 
Samaritans, and between the different sects into which 
the Jews were divided. And since the birth of Christ, 
the Jews and Christians have been a mutual guard and 
check upon each other. 

3. The Agreement of all the Manuscripts. 

II. The integrity and uncorruptness of the books of 
the New Testament is manifest, 

1. From their contents; for, so early as the two first 
centuries the very same facts and doctrines were univet* 



OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 9 

sally received by the Christians, which we at this time be- 
lieve on the credit of the New Testament. 

2. Because an universal corruption of those writings 
was both impossible and impracticable, in consequence 
of the early dispersion of copies, which were multiplied 
and disseminated, either in the original Greek or in trans- 
lations, as rapidly as the boundaries of the church in- 
creased, and also of the effectual check interposed by the 
various sects that existed in the Christian church. 

3. From the agreement of all the manuscripts, the va- 
rious readings in which are not only of so little moment, 
as not to affect any article of faith or practice ; but they 
also prove that the books of the New Testament exist at 
present, in all essential points, precisely the same as they 
were, when they left the hands of their authors. 

4. From the agreement of the ancient versions of these 
books, and the quotations made from them in the writings 
of the Christians of the three first centuries, and in those 
of the succeeding fathers of the church. 

III. That no canonical books of Scripture have been 
lost, may be proved by the following considerations, viz : 

1. The ordinary conduct of Divine Providence, and 
the care which the Divine Being has in all ages taken to 
preserve these books. 

2. The zeal of the faithful to preserve their sacred 
books. 

3. The dispersion of these books into the most distant 
countries and into the hands of innumerable persons. 

IV. With regard to the Old Testament, more particu- 
larly, we may conclude, that, if any books seem to be 
wanting in our present canon, they are either such as are 
still remaining in the Scriptures, unobserved, under other 
appellations ; or they are such as never were accounted 
canonical, and contained no points essential to the salva- 
tion of man. Consequently they are such of which we 
may safely remain ignorant here, and for which we shall 
never be responsible hereafter 

V. The same observation applies with equal force to 
the Books of the New Testament ; in which some learned 
men have imagined that they have discovered allusions 
to writings no longer extant ; but on examination, their 
conjectures prove to be destitute of foundation. Thus the 



10 ON THE CREDIBILITY OP 

expression Eypaxia I have written, in 1 Cor. v. 9, (which 
has given rise to a supposition that St. Pa„l had already 
written an epistle to the Corinthian Church, that is no 
longer extant,) may probably be put for Tpafa, I write ; 
there being nearly one hundred instances in the New Tes- 
tament, in which the past tense is put for the present. — 
So also, the expression h EnroXi7 t< AaoStKias — the Epistle 
from Laodicea (Col. iv. 16,) w T hich seems to intimate 
that the same apostle had previously written an epistle to 
the church at Laodicea, is in all probability that which is 
called the Epistle to the Ephesians, Laodicea being within 
the circuit of the Ephesian Church. 



CHAPTER III. 

ON THE CREDIBILITY OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 

Section I. — Direct evidences of the Credibility of the Old and New Testa- 
ments. 

I. The writers of the Books of the Old and New Tes- 
taments had a perfect knowledge of the subjects which 
they relate : and their moral character, though rigidly 
tried, was never impeached by their keenest opponents. 

II. If there had been any falsehood in the accounts of 
such transactions as were public and generally known, it 
could (and doubtless would) have been easily detected : fir 
these accounts were published among the people, who 
witnessed the events related by the historians. But this 
was not the case with the writings, either of Moses and 
the Prophets, or of the Evangelists. 

1. It is impossible that Moses could have asserted false 
hoods in his writings : for 

[i.] If he had been an impostor, it is utterly incredible that 
he could have given to men so perfect and holy a law as he 
did. 

[ii.] As Moses had been educated in all the learning of 
the Egyptians, and was not of a rash, credulous, or superstitious 
temper, he could not possibly have been himself deceived. 

[iii.J It is absolutely incredible that he should or could have 
imposed on the Israelites, as true, things that were notoriously 
false, and of the falsehood of which they could convict him : 
for he relates facts and events which had taken place in the 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. \\ 

presence of six hundred thousand men ; and urges the reality 
and truth of those facts upon them, as motives to believe and 
obey the new religion which he had introduced among them. 

[iv.] We cannot conceive for what end or with what view 
Moses could have invented all these things. He sought nei 
ther riches nor honours for himself, and he left neither offices 
of honour nor emoluments to his children. He did not write 
to flatter his nation, nor did he conceal his own failings, or at- 
tempt to palliate or excuse the errors or sins of his countrymen. 

These observations are equally applicable to the wri- 
ters who succeeded Moses. 

2. The credibility of the Writers op the books op. 
the New Testament is established on evidence equally 
conclusive with that adduced for the old Testament. 
For 

(1.) The actions ascribed to Jesus Christ in the New 
Testament are of such a description, that they could not 
possibly have been recorded, if they had not been true, 
Plain and unlettered Jews, as the apostles were, though 
adequate to the office of recording what they had seen and 
heard, were incapable of fabricating a series of actions, 
which constituted the most exalted character that ever 
'■ ived upon earth. It is, indeed, highly probable, that the 
ipostles and evangelists were not wholly aware of that 
perfection which they themselves have described : for it 
is not contained in any formal panegyric, but is known 
only by comparison and inference. Whence it follows, 
that the actions which are ascribed to Jesus Christ, either 
are 'truly ascribed to him, or they have been invented for 
a purpose, of which the inventors themselves were proba- 
bly not aware, viz. the delineating of a model of perfec- 
tion ; and applied to that purpose by means which the 
inventors did not possess. And when we further consider 
that the plan, developed by those facts, was in direct 
opposition to the notion and expectation of the Jews 
respecting a temporal Messiah, it is impossible to believe 
that the apostles could have invented them. 

(2.) The apostles could not be deceived in the facts 
which they have recorded; because 

[L] They were competent witnesses of the facts which they 
attested : and their testimony respected facts which they had 
themselves witnessed with their eyes and with their ears. (See 
1 John i. 1—3., and 2 Peter i. 16.) They had lived with Jesus 



IZ ON THE CREDIBILITY OP 

Christ during his ministry ; they had heard his discourses ; they 
had seen his wonderful works, and consequently received them 
on the testimony of their own senses. They had all the same 
knowledge and in the same degree, and they all agree in the 
same essential testimony. 
Qi-] They were neither enthusiasts nor fanatics. , 
They were not enthusiasts : for they became Christ's disci- 
ples, not upon internal persuasion alone, but upon rational con- 
viction, arising from proofs submitted alike to the judgment of 
their minds and to the evidence of their senses, which enthusi- 
asm could not have counterfeited, and would never have re- 
quired : and, at every step of their progress, as their faith was 
called to signalise itself by new exertions,' or to sustain new 
trials, it was fortified by new proofs. Their slowness and cau- 
tion in giving credit to miraculous operations, particularly the 
account of their Master's resurrection from the dead, exempt 
them from all suspicion of being the dupes of delusion and 
credulity. Throughout their writings the utmost impartiality, 
sobriety, and modesty prevail; and, contrary to the practice 
of enthusiasts, they record their own mistakes, follies, and 
faults. 

Neither were they fanatics.— This is evinced by the style of 
the New Testament, which is the very reverse of fanaticism, 
which is always obscure, arrogant, and violent. Though they 
insist on the necessity of receiving and believing the Christian 
system, yet they equally condemn all spirit of persecution and 
all religious differences. 

(3.) As they could not be deceived themselves, so they 
neither would nor did deceive others. 

The whole tenor of their lives proved (what their adversaries 
confessed) that they were men of piety and integrity. If the 
evangelists and apostles had confederated to impose upon man- 
kind, it is incredible that none of their associates should "not 
have confessed the fraud. They had nothing to gain by obtru- 
ding falsehoods ; but, on the contrary, they were exposed to 
the loss of every thing, even of life itself, for preaching the doc- 
trine of the cross, and bearing witness to the truth of Christi- 
anity. It is also utterly incredible, that so many precepts ot 
piety and virtue should have been delivered by men cf such 
abandoned principles as they must have been, had they really 
been impostors. Still less is it to be credited on that supposition, 
that they performed miracles, (the reality of which was ac- 
knowledged by their enemies,) in confirmation of their doctrine. 
Lastly, if the apostles and evangelists had designed to impose 
upon mankind, they would have accommodated themselves to 
the humours of the people whom they addressed ; and would 
carefully have avoided whatever might shock or offend them : 
whereas they acted in quite a different manner. 

(4.) On the contrary, they were men of the strictest 

INTEGRITY and SINCERITY. 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. J 3 

This is evident from the style and manner of their writings, 
which are characterized by the most rigid impartiality and fide- 
lity. There is in them no preparation of events ; there are no 
artful transitions or connexions; no set characters or persons 
to be introduced; no reflections on past transactions or the 
authors of them ; no excuses or apologies for what might pro- 
bably disturb their readers ; no specious artifices, no plausible 
arguments to set off a doubtful action, and to reconcile it to 
some other, or to the character of the person who did it. They 
do not dissemble certain circumstances in the life and suffer- 
ings of their Master, which have no tendency to advance his 
glory in the eyes of the world. They announce the miracles 
of Jesus Christ, with the same dispassionate coolness, as if 
they had been common transactions, saying nothing pre viously 
to raise expectation, nor, after the recital, breaking out into 
exclamations. 

The same striking integrity marks the conduct of the evan- 
gelists, when speaking of their enemies, and also when they 
are relating any circumstances respecting themselves. Their 
enemies are barely mentioned, without censure and without 
resentment; while they record the meanness of their own 
stations, the inveteracy of their prejudices, the weakness of 
their faith, their ambition, and, on certain occasions their secu- 
lar views. 

(5.) They appealed to miracles and other notorious 
proofs, in such a manner, that if they had conspired to 
impose falsehoods upon the world, they might have been 
easily detected and confuted. And 

(6.) Lastly, they suffered every thing for the truth 
of their narration, even death itself, and brought many 
of their contemporaries, (among whom were persons of 
eminent rank and acquirements,) to a conviction of its 
truth. 

III. The Credibility of the Old and New Testaments 
is further attested by the principal facts contained in 
them being confirmed by certain commemorative 
ordinances, or monuments of great celebrity, that existed 
among Jews and Christians from the very time when the 
events took place, which they are said to commemorate, 
and which subsist to the present day in every country 
where either Jews or Christians are to be found. For 
instance, 

[i.] Among the Jews there are the ordinance of Circumci- 
sion and the feasts of the Passover, of Tabernacles, and of 
Pentecost. 

[ii.] In like manner, among Christians, the sacraments of 
Baptism and of the Lord's Supper, and the festival observed on 

2 



14 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 

the first day of the week, in honour of Christ's resurrection 
from the dead. 

IV. The wonderful Establishment and Propagation 
of Christianity is a most convincing proof of the entire 
credibility of the New Testament, and of the religion 
which it establishes. It prevails without the assistance 
of any temporal power, and it triumphs over all oppo- 
sition. 

In considering all these direct evidences of the credi- 
bility of the writers of the New Testament, it is of impor- 
tance to observe, that there is no opposite testimony to 
contradict the positive credible testimony of the apostles, 
evangelists, and multitudes of other persons, to the history 
and miracles of Jesus. Those persons, therefore, who 
reject the Gosple, are compelled to maintain, in opposition 
to positive credible testimony, that the most extensive 
and important events have taken place, without any ade- 
quate cause. 



Section II. Testimonies to the Credibility of the Old and New Testaments, 
from Natural and Civil History. 

§ 1.— Testimonies from Natural and Civil History to the Credibility of the 
Old Testament. 

I. Testimonies to the Mosaic Account of the Creation 
of the World. 

1. The Heathens had a tradition concerning the primeval 
chaos and the production of all things by the Supreme Mind. 
This applies particularly to the Chaldaean, Egyptian, Phoeni- 
cian, Hindoo, Chinese, Etruscan, Gothic, Greek, and American 
Cosmogonies. 

2. The division of time into weeks has prevailed among the 
Hebrews, Egyptians, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, and northern 
barbarians. 

3. Even the Mosaic method of reckoning by nights, instead 
of days, has prevailed in more than one nation. 

II. The Formation of Man in the Moral image of 
God and his State in Paradise. 

These were the origin of the fabled golden age, which is 
described by the poets ; and may also be distinctly traced in the 
legends of our Scythian forefathers, and in the age of perfec- 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. J 5 

tion of the Hindoos. In the classical story of the garden of 
the Hesperides, we may equally discover a tradition of the 
Mosaical Paradise, and of the promised Saviour who should 
bruise the head of the infernal dragon. 

III. The Fall of Man and the Introduction of Sin into 
the World. 

The Mosaic Narrative of these events agrees in the most 
striking manner, both with the obvious facts of labour, sorrow, 
pain and death. Whatever some may assert to the contrary, 
and however they may attempt to explain away that narrative, 
or attempt to prove it false; yet the evidently ruined condi- 
tion of the human race would still remain as an undeniable fact ; 
and the Mosaic Account of the Fall is confirmed by various 
historical traditions. Thus, 

1. From the Fall of the Angels, in all probability, originated 
the Tr tdition of the Titans, and giants invading heaven. 

2. The Disobedience of Eve is plainly alluded to in the le- 
gend of Pandora. 

3. The Corruption and Depravation of Human Nature are 
frequent subjects of complaint among the ancient heathen 
moralists, philosophers and poets. 

4. The form, assumed by the Tempter, has been handed 
down in the traditions of the most ancient nations, particularly 
the Persians. Hindoos, Greeks, Egyptians and Scythians, or 
Goths. 

5. A conviction of the necessity of an Atonement for sin has 
universally prevailed, together with the practice of devoting 
piacular victims. 

IV. The Translation of Enoch 

May be traced in the Grecian fables of the translation of then- 
heroes and demi-gods, particularly of Hesperus and Astraea : 
and in the translation of Dhruva among the Hindoos; or 
Buddha among the Ceylonese, and of Xaca, among the Cal- 
m licks of Siberia. 

V. The Longevity of the Antideluvians 

]< confirmed by various heathen writers, mentioned by Jo«e- 
plius: (Ant. Jud. lib. i. c. 3,) and the Mosaic account of Men 
of a Gigantic Stature is confirmed by the Greek and Roman 
poets and historians, particularly Pausanias, Philostratus, and 
Pliny. 

VI. The Fact of the Deluge is most completely at- 
tested both by Natural and Civil History. 

1. Testimonies from Natural History. 

The Mosaic narrative of the Deluge is confirmed by the fOs 



IQ TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 

silised remains of animals belonging- to a former world, which 
are found in every quarter of the globe, frequently on the sum- 
mits of the most lofty mountains : and it is worthy of remark, 
that the remains of animals, belonging to one part of the globe, 
are often found in another part very distant. Further, the 
deep southern indentations on the different continents of the 
terraqueous globe, and the bold projecting capes on the north, 
corroborate the account of the ark drifting northwards. 

2. Testimonies from Civil History. 

[i.] The paucity of mankind, and the vast tracts of 
uninhabited land, mentioned in the accounts of the first 
ages. 

[ii.] The late invention and progress of arts and sci- 
ences. 

The fabulous nature of early history shows how little credit 
is due to the pretences to antiquity, made by the several na- 
tions among the heathens :— pretences, which have no support 
whatever from authentic history, but are grounded only on the 
uncertain calculations of astronomy, in which science they ac- 
tually had but little or no skill. 

[iii.] The universal tradition of this event, which lias 
obtained among mankind in all ages. 

The Chaldaeans, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Greeks, Romans, 
Goths, and Druids, the Persians, Hindoos, Burmese, Chinese, 
Mexicans, Peruvians, Brazilians, Nicaraguans, the inhabitants 
of Western Caledonia, the Otaheitans, and Sandwich Island- 
ers, all bear testimony to this fact. The deluge is also men- 
tioned by Berosus, Hieronymus the Egyptian, and Nicolaus 
of Damascus, according to Josephus ; and by Alexander Poly- 
histor, Plato, Diodorus Siculus, and Lucian. It is most evi- 
dently alluded to in Ovid's description of Deucalion's flood, 
and Plutarch relates the same particulars of a dove sent out 
bv Deucalion, as Moses records of the dove sent out by 
Noah. 

Notwithstanding all these testimonies, the Mosaic nar- 
rative of the deluge has been objected to, as an improba- 
ble event, contrary to matter of fact. 

Objection 1. — The Ark could not contain all the ani- 
mals which are said, to have entered it. 

Answer.— The contrary has been satisfactorily demonstrated. 
Reckoning the cubit at eighteen inches, Dr. Hales has proved 
that the Ark was of the burden of 42,413 tons. (Analysis 
of Chronology, vol. i. p. 328.) Larger calculations have 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. ff 

been made, but the preceding is abundantly sufficient for our 
purpose. 

Obj. 2. — As the same causes produce the same effects, 
the Rainbow must have existed before the flood. 

Answer.— So it may, but not as a sign of the Covenant. 
The Hebrew word, which in Gen. ix. 13, is rendered set 
ought to be rendered appoint; in which case the passage would 
run thus :— " I do appoint my bow in the cloud to be a sign or 
token of the covenant between me and the earth." 

Obj. 3. — If all mankind sprang from one white pair, 
(Noah and his wife,) it is impossible to account for the 
origin of the blacks, 

Answer.— This difference of colour does not invalidate the 
Mosaic Narrative : for it has been ascertained that the influ- 
ence of climate, and the local circumstances of air, water, food, 
customs, &c. are abundantly sufficient to account for the dis- 
similarity in the appearance of different nations. 

Obj. 4. — The peopling of America and of several 
islands, in which mischievous terrestrial animals have been 
found, has also been urged as an objection to the univer- 
sality of the deluge. 

Answer.— The straits that divide North America from Tar- 
tary are so narrow, as to admit of a very easy passage from 
one continent to the other : and the resemblance found between 
the inhabitants of the opposite sides of that passage, and their 
uncivilised state and rude ignorance of the arts, prove them to 
have had one common origin. 

VII. The Building of the Tower of Babel 

Is circumstantially mentioned by Berosus, a Chaldaean his- 
torian : according to Josephus, it is mentioned by Hestiaeus 
and one of the ancient Sybils ; and, as Eusebius informs us, 
by Abydenus and Eupolemus. That it was constructed with 
burnt bricks and bitumen, is attested by Justin, Quintus Cur- 
tius, and Vitruvius, and also by the relations of modern travel- 
lers. 

VIII. The History of the Destruction of Sodom 
and Gomorrah 

Is attested by Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Solinus, Tacitus, Pliny, 
and Josephus, whose accounts mainly agree with the Mosaic 
Narrative: and their reports concerning the physical appear- 
ance of the Dead Sea are confirmed, in all material points, by 
the relations of all modern travellers. 



lg TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 

IX. Ancient historians, cited by Josephus and Euse- 
bius, make mention of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, 

X. The Departure of the Children of Israel from 
Egypt, and their miraculous passage of the Red Sea, 

Are attested by Berosus, Artapanus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, 
Numenius, Justin, and Tacitus. 

XI. The Heathen Writers borrowed images from 
the accounts communicated in the Scriptures. 

Such are the representations of their deities being veiled in 
clouds, &c; together with several religious institutions, and 
other particulars. 

XII. Many other occurrences related in the Old Tes- 
tament appear to have given rise to various stories among 
the ancients 

Thus, the Story of Iphigenia being sacrificed by her father 
Agamemnon, was borrowed from the circumstance of Jeph- 
thah's devoting his daughter. The story of Scylla having cut 
off the purple lock of her father, Nisus, and given it to his 
enemy, Minos, was in all probability taken from the history of 
Sampson's being shaved. Herodotus relates the departure of 
the sun from its course four times, which seems to refer to the 
times of Joshua and Hezekia. Numerous other instances 
occur, in which scripture characters and events are mentioned 
by heathen writers. 

XIII. Lastly, the Fertility of the Soil of Palestine 

is confirmed by the unanimous testimony of ancient writers, 
*\s well as of most, if not all the travellers who have visited 
ihat country : and, if Palestine were as well inhabited and as 
well cultivated as formerly, its produce unquestionably would 
exceed all calculation. 

Besides the attestations from natural and profane his- 
tory, we may consider the Jews themselves as bearing 
testimony, to this day, in all countries of the world, to the 
truth of their ancient history, that is, to the truth of the 
Old Testament. Allow this, and it will be easy to see, 
why they still persist in their attachment to that religion, 
those laws, and those predictions, which so manifestly 
condemn them, both in past times and in the present. 
Suppose, however, that any considerable alterations have 
oeen made in their ancient history, that is, any such 
alteration as may answer their purposes of infidelity, and 
their present state will be inexplicable. 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 



19 



5 2.— Testimonies of Profane Writers to the Credibility of the New Testa- 
ment. 

I. Testimonies of Jewish and Pagan Authors to the Ac- 
counts of Princes and Governors mentioned in the New 
Testament. 

Thus, Josephus, the Jewish historian, and various ancient 
writers, mention Herod, Archelaus, Pontius Pilate, and other 
persons, whose names occur in the New Testament ; and they 
differ but little from the Evangelical Historians, concerning 
their offices and characters. 

II. The Evangelical Writers agree with Josephus, and 
with profane Authors respecting the Sects, Morals, and 
customs of the Jews. 

III. The Characters and Pursuits of Heathen Nations, 
for instance, the Cretans, Athenians, &c. which are occa- 
sionally introduced in the New Testament, are corroborated 
by the testimonies of profane writers. 

IV. Testimonies of Jewish Adversaries to the Name 
and Faith of Christ. 

1. Josephus bears testimony to the character, miracles, and 
doctrines of Jesus Christ, in the eighteenth book of his Jewish 
Antiquities, Chap. iii. Sect. 3, which passage, though rejected 
by some writers as spurious, has been satisfactorily demon- 
strated to be genuine. 

2. The Talmuds, or Books containing the Jewish Traditions, 
the rabbinical constitutions, and explications of the law, though 
blended with falsehood, refer to the nativity of Jesus Christ ; 
they relate his journey into Egypt ; and do not deny that he 
performed numerous eminent miracles. 

V. Testimonies of Heathen Adversaries to the Chris- 
tian Name and faith. 

1. Mention is made of the Life and Character of Jesus 
Christ in the Acta Pilati, (which were an account sent by Pi- 
late to Rome of the transactions that occurred in his province, 
and to which the Christian writers, Justin and Tertullian, ap- 
pealed in their apologies ;) and also in the writings of the hea- 
then historians, Suetonius, Tacitus, Pliny, and jElius Lampri- 
dius. And Celsus, Porphyry, and Julian, who were the earliest 
learned opposers of the Christian Religion, bear evidence to the 
genuineness of the books received by Christians, and conse- 

Suently to the truth of the history of the Life and Character of 
esus Christ. 

2. To the Innocency of Life, and constancy of the first 
Christians in the profession of their faith, explicit testimony is 
borne, during the Neronian persecution (A. D. 95,) by Tacitus 
Suetonius, Martial, and Juvenal : and the celebrated epistle of 
the Younger Pliny, which was written to the emperor Trajan, 



20 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 

A. D. 107, together with that emperor's reply or rescript, are 
valuable documents, corroborating the truth of the New Tes- 
tament, inasmuch as they attest 

(1.) The great progress made by the Christian Religion in a 
short space of time. 

(2.) The fortitude of the Christians in suffering, and their 
steady perseverance in the faith of Jesus Christ. 

(3.) That they disowned all the Gods of the Heathens, paid 
divine worship to their God and Saviour Jesus Christ, and de- 
voted themselves to the practice of moral virtue. 

(4.) The innocent and virtuous lives of the first Christians, 
whose religion was their only crime. 

Further, Celsus ridicules the Christians for their worship of 
Christ, and attests the gradual increase of their numbers. He 
also acknowledges that there were modest, temperate, and in- 
telligent persons among them ; and bears witness to their faith 
in Christ. Lucian also, another bitter enemy of the Christian 
Faith, has borne testimony to its principal facts and doctrines, 
as well as to the upright character of the Christians : and their 
fortitude and constancy under persecution are referred to by 
the philosopher Epictetus (A.D. 109,) the emperor Marcus An- 
toninus (A.D. 161,) and by Galen. (A.D. 200.) Porphyry also, 
(A.D. 270,) and the emperor Julian (A.D. 361,) have both at- 
tested the truth of many facts and things related in the New 
Testament. 

VI. Refutation of the Objection to the Credibility of 
the Scripture History, which has been raised, in conse- 
quence of the silence of profane historians to the facts 
therein recorded. 

That silence may be satisfactorily accounted for. by their 
great ignorance of facts which occurred very long before their 
own time, and by the peculiar contempt which several of them 
entertained both for Jews and Christians, arising from the di- 
versity of their customs and institutions. To these considera- 
tions we may add— - 

1. That many books of those remote ages are lost, in which 
it is very possible that some mention might have been made of 
these facts. 

2. Some of the Roman Historians, whose works hav&come 
down to our time, are defective. 

3. That of the few remaining historians, who wrote about 
the ages in question, most were engaged upon other subjects. 
Besides, no profane historians, whether Jews or Gentiles, take 
notice of all occurrences. 

4. That several of the facts relating to Christ and his mira- 
cles, coming from Jews, would be slighted as fabulous by the 
Gentile writers, especially considering, on the one hand, how 
common prodigies and magical stories were ; and, on the other, 
how superstitious and credulous the Jews were reputed to be ; 
and 

5. That the first appearance of the Christian scheme would 



THE OLD AND N£',\ TESTAMENTS. £l 

shock them, as seeming so improbable, and so contrary to their 
received maxims, that it cannot excite surprise, that many of 
them ?,ared but little to inquire into the evidences and facts re- 
lating to Christianity. Many, however, who did inquire, doubt- 
less became Christians ; their testimony therefore is not to be 
reckoned in this place. 



§ 3. — Collateral Testimonies to the Truth of the Facts recorded in the 
Scriptures, from ancient Coins, Medals, and Marbles. 

These are confessedly among the most important proofs 
of ancient history in general ; and the confirmation which 
they afford of many particulars recorded in the Scrip- 
tures, is not less important and decisive than the series of 
evidence, furnished by profane historians in the preceding 
sections. Thus, 

L The Mosaic Narrative of the Deluge 

Is confirmed by a coin, struck at Apamea in the reign of Philip 
the elder ; which commemorates the sending forth of the dove 
by Noah. (Gen. viii. 7—11.) On one of the front pannels of 
the chest or ark, which is represented on the reverse of this 
medal, is the word NOE in ancient Greek characters. 

II. The account of Pharaoh-Necho's war against 
the Jews and Babylonians, which is related in 2 Chron, 
xxxv. 20 — 24, and xxxvi. 1 — 4, 

Is confirmed by Herodotus, (Hist. lib. ii. c. 159,) and especially 
by the discoveries of the late Mr. Belzoni, in the tombs of the 
Egyptian sovereigns. (See his Narrative of Operations in 
Egypt, &.c. pp. 242, 243. 4to. edit- and Nos. 4, 5, and 6, of his 

folio Atlas of Plates.) 

III. The Invasion of the Kingdom of Israel, by Shal- 
maneser, King of Assyria, and the carrying of the ten 
tribes into captivity, which are narrated in 2 Kings, xvii. 
6, and xviii. 10, 

Are confirmed by certain ancient sculptures on the mountains 
of Be-Sitoon, near the borders of the ancient Assyria, which 
are described in Sir Robert Ker Porter's Travels in Georgia, 
Persia, &c. vol. ii. pp. 154—162. 

IV. Acts xiii.. 7, is confirmed by a coin, proving that 
tlu island of Cyprus was at that time under the govern- 
ment of a proconsul. 



JJ2 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 

On this coin the same title ANGYIIATOS, or Deputy, is given 
to Proclus, which St. Paul gave to his predecessor, Sergius 
Paulus. 

V. In Acts xvi. 11, 1*2, the evangelist Luke says, 

" We came to Philippi, which is the chief city 

of that part of Macedonia, and a colony," — This pas- 
sage may more correctly be rendered — " Philippi, a 
city of the first part of Macedonia, or of Macedonia 
Prima" 

The province of Macedonia had undergone various changes, 
and had been divided into various portions, particularly into 
four, while under the Roman government. Many medals of 
the first province, or Macedonia Prima, are extant, with the 
inscription MAKEAONQN IIPQTH2, or the " 'first part of Ma- 
cedonia" which confirm the accuracy of Luke, and show his 
attention to the minutest particulars. Further, by using the 
term KOAQN1A, (which was originally a Latin word, Colonia,) 
instead of the corresponding Greek word SuroiKia, the historian 
plainly intimates that it was a Roman colony, which the twenty- 
first verse certainly proves it to have been. Now, among some 
coins that have been discovered, in which it is recorded under 
this character, there is one in particular, which explicitly states 
that Julius Caesar himself bestowed the privileges of a Roman 
colony on the city of Philippi, which were afterwards confirmed 
by Augustus. 

VI. In Acts xvi. 14, we read that Lydia, a dealer in 
purple, from Thyatira, had settled at Philippi. 

Now, among the ruins of Thyatira, there is an inscription 
extant with the words 01 BA$EIE (the diers;) whence we learn 
that the art and trade of dying purple were carried on in that 
city. 

VII. In Acts xvii. 23, Paul relates his having found 
an altar at Athens, with the inscription ArNQETQ 0E12, 
to the unknown god. 

We know from the testimony of Lucian, that there was such 
an inscription : and the occasion of this altar being erected, in 
common with many others bearing the same inscription, is 
related at length by Diogenes Laertius (in Epimenide, lib. i. c. 
x. § 3.) 

VIII. In Acts xix. 35, the word NEQKOPON (in 
the English version rendered a worshipper) is very em~ 
phatic. 

It properly signifies r person dedicated to the service of some 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. %$ 

god or goddess, whose peculiar office it was to attend the tem- 
ple, and see that it was kept clean. At length the NEftK OPOI 
became persons of great consequence, and were those who of- 
fered sacrifices for the life of the emperor. Whole cities took 
this appellation, as appears on many ancient coins and medals. 
Ephesus is supposed to have been the first which assumed this 
title ; and there is a medal extant, in which it is given to that 
city. 

IX, The Triumphal Arch erected at Rome in honour 
of Titus, (whereon are represented certain vessels used 
by the Jews in their religious worship, agreeably to the 
statements in the Old Testament,*) is an evidence to the 
truth of the historic accounts, which describe the dissolu- 
tion of the Jewish State and Government, and relate the 
conquest of Jerusalem. 

Further, there are extant numerous medals of Judaea 
vanquished, struck by order of the Roman general Titus, 
(who was afterwards emperor,) in order to commemorate 
the conquest of Judaea and the subversion of the Jewish 
state and polity. 

The following representation of the reverse of one of 
these is given from the original very rare coin, preserved 
in the cabinet of the British Museum. 




It represents the conquered country as a desolate female 
sitting under a tree, and affords an extraordinary fulfilment 
of Isaiah's prediction (iii. 26. She being desolate shall 
sit upon the ground,) delivered at least eight hundred 
year? before, as well as a striking illustration of the La- 
mentations of Jeremiah (ch. i. ver. 1.) Mow doth the 
city sit solitary, that was full of -people I How is she 

* The vignettes, given in the subsequent part of this volume, are copied 
from this arch. 



24 WVIKS AlTIIORITY GF 

become as a widow ! she that was great among the 
nations, princess among the provinces, how is she 6e« 
come tributary ! 



CHAPTER IV. 

ALL THE BOOKS OP THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS ARE OP DIVINE AUTHORITY, 
AND THE1B AUTHORS ARE DIVINELY INSPIRED. 

Section I. — Preliminary Observations. 

I. Inspiration defined. 

It is the imparting of such a degree of divine influence, 
assistance, or guidance, as enabled the authors of the seve- 
ral Books of Scripture to communicate religious knowledge 
to others, without error or mistake. 

II. Such Inspiration is both reasonable and neces- 
sary. 

1. It is reasonable that the sentiments and doctrines, 
delivered in the scriptures, should be suggested to the 
minds of the writers by the Supreme Being himself; since 
they relate to matters, concerning which the communica- 
tion of information to men is worthy of God. 

2. Further, Inspiration is necessary; for, 

(1.) Some past facts are related in the Bible, which could not 
possibly have been known, had not God revealed them. 

(2.) Some events are predicted, which God alone could fore- 
know. 

(3.) Other things also are contained in the Scriptures which 
are far above the capacity of man. 

(4.) The authoritative language of Scripture argues the ne- 
cessity of inspiration, admitting the veracity of the writers. 
They do not present us with their own thoughts, but exclaim, 
' Thus saith the Lord;" and on that ground they demand our 
assent. 

III. The Scriptures could not have been the invention 
of men. Wicked men would not have produced books 
which condemn every thing that is unholy, even if they 
were capable of doing so ; and good men could not de- 
ceive. 

IV. Criteria of Inspiration. 

These are twofold, viz. Miracles and Prophecy. 



\ 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 25 

To these may be added other internal evidences foi 
the divine inspiration of the Scriptures ; viz. 

The sublime doctrines and precepts which they con 
tain; 

The harmony and connexion subsisting between tlieh 
various parts ; 

The miraculous preservation of the Scriptures ; and 

Their tendency to promote the present and eternal 
happiness of mankind, as evinced by the blessed effects 
which are invariably produced by a cordial belief of the 
doctrines of the Bible. 



Section II— The Miracles, related in the Old and New Testaments, a*« 
Proofs, that the Scriptures were given by Inspiration of God. 

I. A Miracle defined. 

A Miracle is an effect or event, contrary to the esta 
blished constitution or course of things ; or, a sensible sus- 
pension or controlment of, or deviation from, the known 
laws of nature, wrought either by the immediate act, or 
by the assistance or by the permission of God, and ac- 
companied with a previous notice or declaration that it is 
performed according to the purpose and power of God, 
for the proof or evidence of some particular doctrine, or 
in attestation of the authority or divine mission of some 
particular person. 

Nature is the assemblage of created beings : these beings act 
upon each other, or by each other, agreeably to certain laws, 
the result of which is, what we call the course or order of na- 
ture. These laws are invariable : it is by them God governs the 
world. He alone established them ; He alone therefore can 
suspend them. Effects, which are produced by the regular 
operation of these laws, or which are conformable to the esta- 
blished course of events, are said to be natural; and every 
palpable deviation from the constitution of the natural system, 
ana the correspondent course of events in that system, is called 
a miracle. 

II. Nature of the evidence arising from Miracles. 
Objection. — Miracles are beyond comprehension, and 

therefore are contrary to reason. 

Answer.— This is by no means the case : for the possibility 
of miracles is not contrary to reason. Every thing we see, in- 
deed, is in one sense a miracle. How many of the most com- 



20 tlVINE AUTHORITY OF 

mon phenomena m nature are beyond our comprehension ! 
And yet, notwithstanding we cannot comprehend or solve the 
most common of these pnenomena, they make no impression 
on us, because they are common, because they happen accord- 
ing to a stated course, and are seen every day. If they were 
out of the common course of nature, though in themselves not 
more difficult to comprehend, they would still appear more 
wonderful to us, and more immediately the work of God. 
Thus, when we see a child grow into a man, and, when the 
breath has left the body, turn to corruption, we are not in the 
least surprised, because we see it every day: but were we to 
see a man restored from sickness to health by a word, or raised 
to life from the dead by a mere command, though these things 
are not really more unaccountable, yet we call the uncommon 
event a miracle, merely because it is uncommon. We acknow- 
ledge, however, that both are produced by God, because it is 
evident that no other power can produce them. 

Such, then, is the nature of the evidence which arises 
from miracles : and we have no more reason to disbe- 
lieve them, when well attested, and not repugnant to the 
goodness or justice of God, only because they were per- 
formed several ages ago, than we have to disbelieve the 
more ordinary occurrences of Providence which passed 
before our own time, because the same occurrences may 
never happen again during our lives. The ordinary 
course of nature proves the being and providence of God ; 
these extraordinary acts of power prove the divine com- 
mission of that person who performs them. 

III. Design of Miracles. 

This is, not to prove the great doctrines and duties of na- 
tural religion, but to prove new revealed doctrines, which 
neither were nor could be known to the reason of man 
Consequently, believers in the Bible do not argue in a cir- 
cle (as some modern objectors have asserted,) proving the 
doctrines first by the miracles, and then the miracles by 
the doctrines : because the doctrines which they prove by 
miracles, and the doctrines by which they try them, are 
not the same doctrines. 

No miracles are related in the Scriptures to have been 
wrought in confirmation of falsehoods ; yet this has been 
objected in the cases of the Egyptian Magicians, the Witch 
of Endor, and Satan in the time of Christ's temptation 
But this objection is utterly destitute of foundation : for, 

1. The Magicians did not perform any miracle. All they 
did,— as the .narrative of Moses expressly states,— was to busy 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 27 

themselves in their enchantments ; by which, every man knows, 
miracles cannot be accomplished. 

2. The Witch of Endor neither wrought nor expected to 
work any miracle, being herself terrified at the appearance of 
Samuel, who was sent by God himself. 

3. There was nothing miraculous in Satan's leading Christ, 
by his free consent, to a lofty mountain, whence he could dis- 
cover,— not all the world, but all the four tetrarchies or king 
doms of olxovpsvYig, that is, the land of Judaea. 

The proper effect of miracles is, to mark clearly the 
divine interposition; and the Scriptures intimate this to 
be their design ; for both Moses and the Prophets, and Je- 
sus Christ and his Apostles, appealed to them, in proof of 
their divine mission. 

IV. Credibility of Miracles vindicated and proved. 

Whatever miracles are wrought, they arc matters of 
fact, and capable of being proved by proper evidence, as 
other historical facts are. The witnesses, however, must 
be supposed to be acquainted with the course of nature so 
as to be able to judge that the event in question was con- 
trary to it; for an event is not miraculous merely because 
it is to us strange or unaccountable, but because it is con- 
trary to the known course of nature. To those who be- 
held the miracles of Moses and Jesus Christ, the seeing 
of those miracles was sufficient evidence of their divine 
inspiration. But to other men, miracles, like other 
events, admit of the evidence of testimony : the cre- 
dibility of the witnesses therefore is the only point now to 
be considered. 

Hints for estimating the value of human testimony. 

1. Any thing capable of being proved by mere testimony is 
credible, in proportion to the opportunity which the witness 
had of being well informed concerning it himself, and his free- 
dom from any bias which might make him wish to impose 
upon others. 

If the person, who gives us information of any fact, appears to be a 
competent judge of it, — and to have been in a situation in which he had 
the best opportunity of being rightly informed, and if there be no ap- 
pearance of its being his interest to deceive us, we give our assent, — but 
we hesitate in proportion to the doubts we entertain on either of these 
heads. 

2. The more persons there are, who relate the same transac- 
tion of which they are equally credible witnesses, the stronger 
is the evidence for it. But the more persons there are, 
through whose hands the same narration is conveyed to us. 
the weaker is the evidence. 



gri DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 

In the latter case the witnesses are called dependent ones ; but in the 
former they are said to be independent. Whatever imperfection there 
may be in any one of a number of independent witnesses, it is in part re- 
moved by the testimony of others : but every imperfection increases in 
proportion to the number of dependent witnesses, through whose hands 
the story is transmitted. 

3. The proper mark or criterion of a story being related by 
a number of independent witnesses, of full credit, is their com- 
plete agreement in the principal arguments, and their disa- 
greement with respect to things of less consequence, or, at 
least, variety or diversity, in their manner of relating the same 
story. 

4. We likewise distinguish respecting the nature of the fact 
to which our assent is required. Miracles require stronger 
testimony than common facts ; and such testimony they really 
have. 

The greater part of our knowledge has no other foundation than testi- 
mony. Yet has it been laid down as a maxim, that no human testimony 
is sufficient to establish the truth of a miracle. This assertion was first 
made by the ablest and acutest of the deistical philosophers, and it has 
commonly been accounted the strong hold of infidelity. His argument, in 
substance, is this: — "Experience, which in some things is variable, in 
others is uniform, is our only guide in reasoning concerning matters of 
fact. Variable experience gives rise to probability only ; an uniform ex- 
perience amounts to proof. Our belief of any fact from the testimony of 
eye- witnesses is derived from no other principle, than our experience of the 
veracity of human testimony. If the fact attested be miraculous, there 
arises a contest of two opposite experiences, or proof against proof. Now, 
a miracle is a violation of the laws of nature : and as a firm and unal- 
terable experience has established these laws, the proof against a mira- 
cle,— from the very nature of the fact, — is as complete as any argument 
from experience can possibly be imagined : and if so, it is an undeniable 
consequence, that it cannot be surmounted by any proof whatever, de- 
rived from human testimony." 

To this specious reasoning it may be replied, 

(1.) That the evidence arising from human testimony is not 

derived solely from experience : on the contrary, testimony 

has a natural influence on belief. 

It is therefore more consonant to truth, to say, that our diffidence in tes- 
timony is the result of experience, than that our faith in it has this foun- 
dation. Besides, the uniformity of experience, in favour of any fact, is not 
a proof against its being reversed in any particular instance. The evi- 
dence, arising from the single testimony of a m an of known veracity, 
will go further to establish a belief of its being reversed. 

(2.) What is usually called the 'course of nature' is nothing 
but the will and pleasure of God acting continually upon mat- 
ter, according to certain rules of uniformity, still bearing rela- 
tion to contingencies. Now God is the governor of the moral 
as well as of the physical world : and, since the moral well- 
being of the universe is of more consequence than its physical 
order and regularity, it follows, that the latter may be subser- 
vient, and occasionally yield to the former. 

(3.) The futility of this sophism may also be shown upon its 
own avowed principles. If the secret of compounding gun- 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 29 

powder had perished by the accidental death of its inventor, 
immediately after its extraordinary powers had been exhibited 
before a hundred competent witnesses, on the principles of the 
sophism now before us, the fact of its extraordinary powers 
must be rejected as a falsehood. 

V. The Credibility of Miracles does not decrease with 
the lapse of years, as the antagonists of Christianity ob- 
ject. 

There may be cases, in which crediblity vanishes with 
time; but no testimony is really, in the nature of things, 
rendered less credible by any other cause than the loss or 
want of some of those conditions, which at first made it 
rationally credible. A testimony continues equally cre- 
dible so long as it is transmitted with all those circumstan- 
ces and conditions, which first procured it a certain degree 
of credit amongst men, proportionate to the intrinsic 
value of those conditions. But the evidence in favour of 
the facts of the Christian Religion has increased instead 
of diminishing ; as recent inquiries of learned men have 
produced fresh testimonies. 

VI. Criteria of Miracles : — they are six in number 
viz. : 

1. A miracle should have an important end in view, 
worthy of its author. 

2. It must be instantaneously and publicly performed, 
before credible witnesses. 

3. It must be sensible and easy to be observed ; in 
other words, the fact purporting to be miraculous must be 
such, that the senses of mankind can clearly and fully 
judge of it. 

It ought to be independent of second causes. 

Objection. — In three of his miracles (John ix. 1—7. Mark 
viii. 23—26. Mark vii. 32— 37 J Jesus made use of external 
applications. 

Answer.— These applications were made only upon the blind 
or the deaf; and in these cases, the reason for using them seems 
to have been, to convey to the persons on whom the miracu- 
lous cures were performed, a clear assurance that Jesus Christ 
was the author of such cures. 

5. Not only public monuments must be kept up, but 
some outward actions must also be constantly performed, 
in memory of the facts thus publicly wrought. 

6. Such monuments must be set up ? and such actions 
and observances instituted, at the very time when those 

3* 



>#$ DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 

events took place, and be afterwards continued without 
interruption. 

These two rules render it impossible that the belief of any 
facts should be imposed upon the credulity of after ages, when 
the generation asserted to have witnessed them had expired ; 
for, whenever such facts come to be recounted, if not only 
monuments are said to remain of them, but public actions and 
observances had further been constantly used to commemorate 
them by the nation appealed to, ever since they had taken 
place, the deceit must be immediately detected, by no such 
monuments appearing, and by the experience of every indi- 
vidual, who could not but know that no such actions or ob- 
servances had been used by them, to commemorate such 
events. 

VII. Application of these Criteria to the Miracles re- 
lated in the Sacred Writings. 

1. With regard to the miracles recorded to have been 
wrought by Moses and Joshua : — 

The posterity of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, being chosen 
by Jehovah to be his peculiar people for the preservation of 
true religion, the miracles performed on their behalf were un- 
questionably worthy of their Almighty Author. These mira- 
cles were instantaneously performed at the command of Moses, 
and before great numbers of Egyptians or Israelites, sometimes 
in the presence of both nations ; as in the case of the plagues, 
and the destruction of Pharaoh's army, which were witnessed 
by the whole people of Israel, and were felt by the Egyptians. 

In commemoration of these and other miraculous occurren- 
ces, were instituted the three great festivals of the Hebrews, 
—the Passover, the feast of Tabernacles, and the feast of Pen- 
tecost ; all the first born of man and beast were solemnly con- 
secrated to God ; and the tribe of Levi was set apart, in special 
commemoration of the destruction of the first born of the' 
Egyptians. 

The memory of the miraculous supply of the Israelites with 
food was perpetuated by the pot of manna; and the twelve 
stones, taken out of the midst of Jordan at the time of the 
miraculous passage of the Israelites over that river, were set ur 
by Joshua at Gilgal, as a perpetual memorial to them. 

In all these instances, the preceding criteria are mosi 
decisively established. 

2. With respect to the miracles related in the New 
Testament. 

(1.) The number of Christ's miracles was very great. 

About forty of them are narrated at length. The gospel 
history is full of them : and one of Christ's biographers informs 
us that he performed a greater number than are in any way 
recorded. 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 3| 

(2.) There was great variety in the miracles recorded 
in the New Testament. 

They were of a permanent nature, and might be reviewed and 
re-examined, as in many instances they actually were. We 
behold Christ giving sight to the born blind ; — healing the ob- 
stinate leprosy ;— making those who wanted a limb, perfect ;— 
those who were bowed double, straight ; — those who shook 
with palsy, robust ;— nerving the withered arm with strength ; 
— restoring the insane and demoniacs to reason ; — and raising 
the dead to life. We behold the apostles also expelling de- 
mons, restoring the lame from his birth, giving sight to the 
blind, healing all manner of diseases, and giving life to the 
dead. All these supernatural works were performed, not in a 
few instances with hesitation and diffidence, but were very fre- 
quently repeated through a series of years ; so that all suspicion 
of human management, compact, and imposture, was for ever 
precluded. 

(3.) The design of Christ's miracles was important, 
and worthy of their Almighty Author. 

The end and purpose, for which these miracles were wrought, 
was, to carry on one vast and consistent plan of Providence, 
extending from the creation to the consummation of all things - 
to establish a system of belief, hope, and practice adapted to the 
wants and conditions of mankind; which had been revealed in 
part to the Jews, and promised to the prophets, and which 
tended to destroy the four great moral evils, so prevalent and 
so pernicious, viz.— atheism, scepticism, immorality, and vice. 
In subservience to their grand object, (the confirmation of his 
divine mission,) the miracles of Christ were wrought for the 
most benevolent of all purposes, — the alleviation of misery in 
every form ; and they carry in them the characters of the 
greatest goodness, as well as of the greatest power. 

Only two of Christ's miracles bear any marks of seve- 
rity ; viz. his suffering the demons to enter the herd of 
swine (Matt. viii. 28 — 34. Mark v. 12 — 17.,) and his caus- 
ing the fig-tree to wither away. 

[i.] As to the destruction of the swine, though commonly 
regarded as a miraculous work, it was in point of fact not a 
miracle. He did not command, but only permitted, the de- 
mons to enter the swine ; for which permission several satis- 
factory reasons may be assigned. For, if the owners of the 
swine were Jews, as there is every reason to believe, they were 
justly punished for their deliberate violation of their laws. 
which prohibited the keeping of swine : and if they were Gen- 
tiles, Christ might have permitted the demons to enter the 
swine, to convince them of the sanctity and divinity of the 
Jewish laws (which they were accustomed to ridicule,) and, 
further, it may be, to punish them for laying a snare in the way 
of the Jews. 



32 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 

[il] In causing the barren fig-tree to wither away, Jesus 
Christ neither invaded private property, nor did any injury to 
the community at large ; but by this action he dictated an im- 
pressive and important moral lesson both to his disciples and to 
all mankind : viz. — That if we neglect or wilfully misemploy 
our opportunities of improvement in religious knowledge and 
in holiness, we must expect to be withered like the barren fig- 
tree before the displeasure of the Lord Jesus, when he shall 
come to judge the world. 

Consider further the greatness of Christ's Miracles. 

The diseases which he healed were incurable, inveterate, and 
had baffled every attempt of art : and this greatness of Christ's 
miracles secures them against the suspicion of imposture. Im- 
postors usually satisfy themselves with little tricks, because 
they are less open to suspicion, and usually gain credit. 

(5.) Observe also the persons by whom these miracles 
were accomplished. 

They were wrought by persons, who were known to be poor, 
unlearned, of low condition, and destitute of great friends and 
powerful patrons ; who gave other proofs of their mission, and 
did not rest the whole of rheir cause upon miracles, but like- 
wise insisted upon the reasonableness of the doctrines which 
they offered to examination. Further, they were offered by 
persons, who appealed to God, and ueclared that they would 
perform them. 

(6.) The persons, before whom the miracles were 
wrought, claim our especial notice. 

They were wrought in a learned age, and before people who 
were not easily deluded, and they were stigmatised by the 
name of magic. 

(7.) The manner too in which these miracles were per- 
formed is equally worthy of attention for its publicity, 
simplicity, and disinterestedness. 

(8.) Another circumstance, which confirms the validity 
and truth of these miracles, is, the effects produced by 
them. 

Numbers who were spectators of them yielded to conviction, 
and embraced the Gospel. 

(9.) Lastly, the reality of the miracles of Christ and 
his apostles was never denied. 

Both Jewish and Heathen opposers of the Christian faith 
were constrained, however reluctantly, to admit the reality of 
the miracles of Christ and his apostles ; though they ascribed 
them to magic )6 and denied the divine commission of him who 
performed them. 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 33 

VIII. A brief examination of a few of the principal 
Miracles related in the New Testament. 

1. The Conversion of Water into Wine. (John ii. 1 — 10.) 
The Jewish weddings continued seven days: during the nuptial feast, 
from the poverty of the bridegroom and bride, or perhaps from the num- 
ber of guests being greater than was expected, there was a deficiency of 
wine. Jesus commanded the servants to fill the vessels with water up to 
the brim; it was therefore impossible to mix any wine. The servants 
alone were privy to the process ; and the governor of the feast gives his 
attestation to the miraculous supply in so easy and natural a manner, 
that we cannot but esteem it beyond the reach of artifice. 

2. The miraculous Feeding of jive thousand men, besides 
women and children. (Matt. xiv. 15—21. Mark vi. 35—44. 
John vi. 5— 13.) 

The orderly disposition of the multitude, in ranks by hundreds and by 
fifties, exposed the miraculous operation to the view of all ; so that de- 
ception was impossible. The gathering up of twelve baskets full ot frag- 
ments is a proof that they had plenty of food ; and the circumstance of the 
people being desirous to make Christ a King (for which he rebuked them 
on the following day,) is a further proof of the reality of the miracle, and 
of the impression which it had made. 

3. The Healing of the Paralytic. (Matt. ix. 2—8. Mark ii. 
4-12. Luke 5. 18-26.) 

This miracle was wrought in the presence of many witnesses, some of 
whom were enemies to Jesus Christ. The manner in which the sick man 
was presented, is unparalleled, and shows the confidence which he and 
others had in Christ's power of healing him. The manner, too, in which 
Christ addressed him, is still more striking, beginning with the remission 
of his sins, without saying any thing concerning his malady. 

4. The giving of Sight to a man who had been born blind, 
(John ix. 1—7. 

There are many remarkable circumstances in this miracle. The man 
had not become blind by any accident, which admits of relief. He was 
born blind. He did not ask to be restored to sight : thus there was no 
room for suspicion on his part. 

The question, proposed by the disciples (John ix. 1, 2,) proves that the 
man's blindness was from his birth ; but the answer was so little in uni- 
son with their notions, that it never could have entered their minds if 
they had not heard it from Jesus. The mcde employed for giving this 
man sight, was utterly inadequate to produce the effect which followed. 
Lastly, the miracle was performed in public, and immediately subjected 
to the strictest possible scrutiny. 

5. The Cure, by Peter and John, of a man who had been 
Lame from his Birth (Acts iii. 1—10,) is equally remarkable. 

The man's person and lameness were universally known in Jerusalem ; 
a perfect cure was instantaneously wrought ; and the transaction imme- 
diately underwent a severe examination, the effect of which was only to 
make the miracle still more widely known. 

6. The Raising of the Daughter of Jairus to life. (Matt. ix. 
18.-26. Mark v. 22-43. Luke viii. 41-56.) 

Though all the circumstances in the account of this miracle have the 
aspect of the most natural and unexpected occurrences, (which could 
neither have been combined by human contrivance nor anticipated by 
human foresight,) no circumstance was wanting, either to ascertain the 



34 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 

reality of the miracle, or without any apparent ostentation or design, to 
give it the most unquestionable publicity. 

7. The Raising of the Widow^s Son from the Dead at Nain. 
(Luke vii. 11-15.) 

The fact of the young man's death was indisputable: a considerable 
number of her townsmen accompanied his mother who was following 
his remains to the grave : and in their presence the miracle was instan- 
taneously and publicly performed. 

8. The Resurrection of Lazarus from the dead. (John xi.) 
The precise time of Christ's arrival at Bethany gave his enemies an 
opportunity of observing the transaction. u Many of the Jews had come 
to Martha and Mary :" and the restoring of Lazarus to life has every cha- 
racter of a miracle. For it was instantaneously and publicly performed 
before credible witnesses ; it was independent of second causes ; and the 
end for which it was performed, was important, for it was, to attest the 
divine mission of the Son of God. 

IX. The most remarkable of all the miracles, related 
in the New Testament, is the resurrection of Jesus 
Christ from the dead, and it demands a distinct examina- 
tion. 

1. As to Christ's prophetic declarations concerning his 
death and resurrection. 

Jesus repeatedly predicted the circumstances of his death and resurrec- 
tion to his disciples. Now, when he did this, he either did or did not fore- 
see his resurrection. If he did not foresee it, with what hopes did he 
comfort his disciples? and why did he voluntarily offer himself to death, 
and actually endure the ignominious death of crucifixion 1 If he did 
foresee that he should rise again, he could not have believed it, but only 
on the experience he had already made of his power of giving sight to the 
blind, health to the sick, and (above all) life to the dead. His miracles 
therefore must be true ; and, if so, he then possessed sufficient power to 
raise himself to life. 

No one can doubt that Christ foretold his resurrection, who considers 
that it was on this very account that the chief priests and Pharisees set a 
watch at the sepulchre. 

2. Evidence of the Reality of the resurrection. 

It is an indisputed fact that Jesus died upon the cross and was interred 
In the sepulchre; at which the Jews took the precaution of placing a 
military guard. After the resurrection, the Jews reported that the disci- 
ples stole the body away while the guard were sleeping ; a circumstance 
bo manifestly improbable as well as false, that Matthew, though he faith- 
fully records the report, does not offer a syllable to refute it. 

Consider further, 

(1.) The terror of the timid disciples, and the paucity of their number; 
the season, — that of the great annual festival, the Passover, when Jeru- 
salem was full of people, and when also, it being the time of the full 
moon, the night was very light. 

(2.) Is it probable that so many men, as composed the guard, would all 
fall asleep in the open air at once 7 

(3.) If the soldiers were all asleep, they could not know what was doing 
in the mean time; would not the noise, made in opening the sepulchre, 
have awakened some, if not the whole of them 1 and if any of them were 
awake, would thev not soon have alarmed the rest, and prevented such 
an attempt? 

(4.) Besides, are the appearances of composure and regularity in the 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. #5 

tomb consistent with the hurry and trepidation of thieves, stealing when 
an armed guard is at hand, and in a moonlight night. 

(5.) But, observe the conduct of the rulers. Why did not they order 
the Apostles to be seized? Why did they not command the soldiers to be 
punished 7 Why did they not bring the whole to a judicial determination 1 
Why is this neglect in men who had been so anxious to have a guard 
placed upon the sepulchre'? Wiry did they never after charge the disci- 
ples or apostles themselves with having stolen the body 1 

Objection. Christ did not show himself to the Chief 
Priests and Jews. 

Answer.— For this various satisfactory reasons may be as- 
signed. 

[ *..] It is not probable that the Jews would have submitted to that evi- 
dence. 

[*»*.] If Jesus had appeared to them after his resurrection, and they had 
acknowledged him to be the Messiah, it is most probable that the persons 
who made this objection would not have been satisfied, but would have 
suspected, and would have represented, the whole as an artifice and im- 
posture. Or, it might have been said that they were haunted with spec- 
tres, and consequently that their testimony was of no value. 

[Hi.] If they had remained unconvinced, the fact would have been ques- 
tioned : if they had been convinced, without honesty or resolution to de- 
clare the truth, the fact would still have been doubtful ; and, if they had 
been convinced, and had acknowledged Jesus to have been the Messiah 
or Christ, loud would have been the clamour of a combination, and the 
progress and prevalence of Christianity would have been ascribed to the 
secular influence of its advocates. 

3. The Character of the Witnesses also proves the 
truth of the Resurrection of Christ. Observe, 

(1.) The Condition of these witnesses. 

They were mean, despised, and unlearned men, and consequently were 
unequal, to the task of imposing upon others. 

(2.) Their Number, and also the number of the different 
appearances of Jesus Christ, which was more than sufficient to 
establish any fact. 

Seven different Jewish Wkiters have related or mentioned not fewer 
than eleven distinct appearances of Jesus Christ at different hours of the 
day and at different places ; and on one occasion to " above five hundred" 
persons. 

(3.) The Incredulity of the witnesses, and their slowness in 
believing the resurrection of Christ. 

(4.) The Moral Impossibility of their succeeding in palming 
an imposition upon the world. Because, 

[».] It is inconceivable that a man should willingly expose himself to 
all sorts of punishment — even to death itself— on purpose to testify a mat- 
ter of fact which he knew to be false. 

[it.] Although there should have been one person so disposed, it cannot 
be imagined — indeed it would be the height of absurdity to imagine, — that 
numbers would have formed the same resolution. 

[Hi.] Though a great number of persons should have agreed together to 
attest a falsehood, yet it is incredible that they should bear witness to it, 
who considered perfidy and lying as sins utterly inconsistent with their 
•alvation : neither could it be supposed or expected of those, who, if they 
allowed the resurrection of Jesus Christ to be a fiction, must also allow 
that they had followed an imaginary Messiah. 



#(} DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 

[iv.] Such a mutual concert or agreement could never have been so 
carried on, but that some of them, in order to avoid punishment, or to 
gain reward, would have disclosed the whole intrigue. 

[v.] The very same principles, which had dissolved their mutual Jide- 
lity, would more probably break off their mutual treachery. It cannot 
reasonably be supposed that those disciples, who were scattered when 
their master was crucified, would afterwards conspire to affirm a bold 
and unprincipled falsehood. 

(5.) Observe the Facts, which they themselves avow. 

Their testimony relates to facts, in which it was impossible that they 
could have been deceived ; such as the seeing, touching, sitting at table 
and conversing with, their risen master. 

(6.) Consider further the Agreement of their evidence. 

They all unanimously deposed that Christ rose from the dead. 

Observe also the Tribunals before which they gave evidence, 
and the multitude of people by whom their testimony was scru- 
tinised,— by Jews and heathens, philosophers and rabbis, and 
by a vast number of persons who went annually to Jerusalem : 
for Providence so ordered those circumstances, that the testi- 
mony of the apostles might be unsuspected. 

(8.) Take notice also of the Time, when this evidence was 
given. 

Only three days after the crucifixion, they declared that Christ was 
risen again, as he had foretold. Would impostors act thus? 

(9.) Consider likewise the Place, where the apostles bore 
their testimony to the resurrection. 

They preached a risen Saviour, in the synagogues, and in the prseto- 
rium, at Jerusalem, the very city where he had been jgnominiously 
crucified. 

(10.) Consider the Motives, which induced the apostles to 
publish the fact of Christ's resurrection. 

It was, not to acquire fame, riches, or glory, but to found on this fact 
a series of exhortations to repentance, faith, and holiness: — topics these 
which were never proposed by an impostor. At the same time, they 
lived as no impostor ever did, and were enabled to appeal to their con- 
verts for the sanctity, justice, and unblamable tenour of their own lives. 

(11.) Lastly, the Miracles performed by these witnesses in 
the name of Jesus Christ, after the effusion of the Holy Spirit 
on the day of Pentecost, and the success which attended their 
preaching throughout the world, are God's testimony to the 
fact of Christ's resurrection from the dead, as well as to their 
veracity in proclaiming it. 

On the miraculous fact of Christ's resurrection, the first 
four of the Criteria above noticed (see p. 29. supra) are 
most clearly to be discerned. With regard to the last two, 
(see p. 30,) we may remark, that the Lord's Supper was 
instituted as a perpetual memorial of the death of Jesus 
Christ; and that the weekly festival of the Lord's Day 
(or Sunday) commemorates the mii*culous fact of his 
resurrection. These memorials, it nius' be observed, were 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 37 

mstitated at the very time when the circumstances to 
which they relate took place, and they have been observed 
throughout the Christian world, in all ages, to the present 
time. 

X. A Comparison of the Scripture Miracles with pre- 
tended Pagan and Popish Miracles. 

Counterfeit miracles are no proof that the miracles, re- 
lated in the New Testament, are not real : the more strict- 
ly such pretended miracles are investigated, the more de- 
fective is the evidence adduced for them. For, 

1. The scene of most of them is laid in remote countries and 
in distant ages. 

2. They were performed in ages of gross ignorance, when 
the common people were likely to be deceived, and were 
wrought in secresy. 

3. They were performed by persons of high rank, who were 
held in the profoundest veneration by the common people, and 
were never subjected to any scrutiny. 

4. The heathen miracles were designed to support the esta- 
blished religion, and were engrafted upon the superstitious 
notions of the vulgar. 

5. They are Hot vouched to us by any credible testimony. 

6. They were not credited by the intelligent and judicious 
even among the heathen. 

The same remarks are equally applicable to the pretended 
popish miracles. 

But the contrary is the case with respect to the mira- 
cles recorded in the Scriptures, the reality of which is 
substantiated by the most positive and irresistible evi- 
dence. 



Section III,— On Prophecy. 

I. Prophecy defined. 

Prophecy is a miracle of knowledge, a declaration, or 
description, or representation of something future, beyond 
the power of human sagacity to discern ©r to calculate ; 
and it is the highest evidence, that can be given, of super- 
natural communion with the Deity, and of the truth of a 
revelation from God. 

II. Difference between the pretended predictions of 
Heathen Oracles, and the Prophecies contained in the 
Scriptures. 

The oracles of the ancient heathens were delivered 
either for the purpose of satisfying some trivial curiositv, 

i 



38 DIVINE AUTHORITY- OF 

or to abet the designs of some ambitious leader. They 
uttered no spontaneous predictions. Those, who conduct- 
ed them, threw various obstacles in the way of inquiry by 
sacrifices, &c. Sometimes, the gods were not in a hu- 
mour to be consulted : at other times, when no means of 
evasion remained, the answers given were ambiguous or 
delusive ; and whenever the oracles failed, there was al- 
ways some subterfuge, to which the priests had recourse. 
If an evil event took place, when an auspicious one had 
been promised, this was ascribed to the fault of the in- 
quirer. Something defective in the sacrifices was disco- 
vered, when too late ; or the gods were averse to him. 
If the contrary proved to be the case, this was ascribed to 
the intercession of the priests. 

Widely different are the prophecies contained in the 
Scriptures: for, 

1. They were delivered without solicitation, and were 
pronounced openly before the people : and the prophet 
knew himself to be exposed to capital punishment, if any 
one of his predictions were to be overthrown. The 
events foretold were often complicated and remote ; 
depending on the arbitrary will of man, and arising from 
a great variety of causes, which concurred to bring them 
to pass. 

2. Some were accomplished shortly after they were de- 
livered : others somewhat later ; and others had a still 
more distant object. But the different events foretold 
were so connected with each other, that the most distant 
bordered pretty nearly upon some others, the accomplish- 
ment of which was preparatory to the fulfilment of the 
last. The fulfilment of the first served to raise an expec- 
tation of those which were distant, and the accomplish- 
ment of the last served to confirm the first. 

3. A large portion of the scripture-prophecies was com- 
mitted to writing, and left open to public examination : 
this is a test, which the spurious predictions of the hea- 
thens could never endure. 

III. The Use and Intent of Prophecy was, — to raise 
expectation, and to soothe the mind with hope ; to main- 
tain the faith of a particular providence, and the assurance 
of a promised Redeemer ; and to attest the divine inspi 
ration of the Scriptures. 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT. 39 

IV. Of the chain of Prophecy. 

The scripture-prophecies respect contingencies too won- 
derful for the powers of man to conjecture or to effect. 
Many of those, which are found in the Old Testament, 
foretold unexpected changes in the distribution of earthly 
power : and, whether they announced the fall of nourish - 
ing cities, or the ruin of mighty empires, the event has 
minutely corresponded with the prediction. These pro- 
phecies form a regular chain or system, which may be re- 
duced to four classes, viz. 

1. Prophecies relating to the Jewish Nation in par- 
ticular. 

2. Prophecies relating to the neighbouring nations or 
empires. 

3. Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah. 

4. Prophecies delivered by Jesus Christ and his 
apostles. 



Class I. — Prophecies relating to the Jewish Nation in particular. 

1. Predictions concerning the Posterity of Abraham, 
Gen. xii. 1. xlvi. 3. ; Exod. xxxii. 13. Gen. xiii. 16. 

xv. 5. xvii. 2. 4 — 6. xxii. 17. xxvii. 4. xxviii. 14. xxxii. 

12. xxxv. 11. 

See the fulfilment of these predictions, as it respects the Jews (to omit 
the increase of Abraham's other posterity,) in Exod. i. 7. 9. 12. Numb, 
xxiii. 10. Deut. i. 10. x. 22. Ezek. xvi. 7. Heb. vi. 12. In less than 
five hundred years after the first of the above predictions was delivered, 
the number of the Israelites amounted to six hundred thousand men, be- 
sides women and children. 

2. Prophecies concerning Ishmael, — Compare Gen. 
xvi. 10—12. xvii. 20, and xxv. 12—18. 

From him descended the various tribes of Arabs, whose numbers and 
manner of living have ever since been, and to this very day are, a verifi- 
cation of the predictions respecting them. 

3. It was foretold that the Posterity of Abraham^ 

Isaac, and Jacob, should possess the land of Canaan : so 

that, though they should be expelled thence for their sins, 

yet their title should endure, and they should be resettled 

in it, and there continue in peace to the end of the world. 

(See Gen. xii. 7. xiii. 14, 15. 17. xv. 18—21. Exod. 

iii. 8. 17. Gen. xvii. 7, 8.) 

Accordingly, the Jews enjoyed this land for above a thousand years : 
and when the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin were carried into captt* 



40 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 

vity, it was announced that it should be for seventy years: which the 
event proved to be true, and they continued in possession of Canaan, for 
six hundred years, until the final subversion of their polity by Titus. Al- 
though the ten tribes carried captive by Shalmaneser, and the body of tha 
two tribes who were carried into captivity by Titus, are not now in Ca- 
naan ; yet since the time of their final restoration has not arrived, this is 
no objection against these ancient prophecies, but a fulfilment of others: 
besides we have reason to believe that the Jews will ultimately be restor- 
ed to their native country. 

4. The twenty-eighth chapter of Deuteronomy contains 
most striking Predictions concerning the Jews, which 
have literally been fulfilled during their subjection to the 
Chaldaeans and Romans, and in later times in all nations 
where they have been dispersed. To specify a very few 
particulars: — 

(1.) Moses foretold that their enemies would besiege 
and take their cities : 

This prophecy was fulfilled by Shishak King of Egypt, Shalmaneser 
King of Assyria, Nebuchadnezzar, Antiochus Epiphanes, Sosius and 
Herod, and finally by Titus. 

(2.) Moses foretold grievous famines during those 
sieges, so that they should eat the flesh of their sons and 
daughters. 

This was fulfilled six hundred years after the time of Moses, among the 
Israelites, when Samaria was besieged by the King of Assyria; again, 
about nine hundred years after Moses among the Jews, during the siege 
of Jerusalem before the Babylonish captivity; and, finally, fifteen hun- 
dred years after his time, during the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans. 

(3.) Moses predicted that the Jews should he few in 

number. 

This was literally fulfilled by immense numbers perishing by famine 
during the last siege of Jerusalem, after which many thousands were 
sold ; and also after their final overthrow by Hadrian, when many thou- 
sands were sold, and those for whom purchasers could not be found (Mo- 
ses had foretold that no man would buy them) were transported into Egypt, 
where very many perished by shipwreck or famine ; and others were mas- 
sacred. Yet notwithstanding all their miseries and oppressions, they still 
continue a separate people, and have become "an astonishment and a 
bye-word among the nations." 

5. Josiah was prophetically announced by name, 
(1 Kings xiii. 2,) three hundred and sixty-one years be- 
fore the event. 

The fulfilment of this prophecy was remarkable, plainly showing it to 
be, not from man, but from God. (2 Kings xxxiii. 15.) 

6. The utter Subversion of Idolatry among the Jews, 
foretold by Isaiah (ii. 18 — 21,) was fulfil ed after their 
return from the Babylonish Captivity. 

The calamities, denounced against them by the same prophet, on ac 
count of their wickedness, within two hundred years afterwards overtook 



THE QLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 41 

them. (Isa. iii. 1 — 14, compared with 3 Chron. xxxvi.) And, on the 
capture of Jerusalem try the Chaldeans, a few poor people were left to 
till the land, as Isaiah had prophesied. (Isa. xxiv. 13, 14, compared with 
Jer. xxxix. 10.) 

7. Jeremiah foretold the Conquests of Nebuchadnezzar, 
and the consequent captivity of the Jews. 

These were literally accomplished. Compare Jer. xxvii. 3—7, with 
xxxix. 11—14- And although the predictions of Jeremiah and Ezekiel 
concerning Zedekiah appeared to contradict each other, both were ful- 
filled in the event; Zedekiah seeing the King of Babylon at Jerusalem, 
who commanded his eyes to be put out, and being carried to Babylon 
where he died. 

8. While Ezekiel was a captive in Chaldaaa, he pro- 
phesied (v. 12, and viii.) that the Jews, who remained in 
Judaea, should be punished for their wickedness. In a 
very few years all the evils predicted, literally came upon 
them by the Chaldaeans. 

9. The profanation of the temple by Antiochus Epi- 
phanes, was foretold by Daniel (viii.) four hundred and 
eight years before the accomplishment of the prediction. 
The same prophet also foretold the destruction of Jeru- 
salem, and the cessation of the Jewish sacrifices and 
oblations. 

10. Hosea foretold the present state of the people of 
Israel in these words — " They shall be wanderers among 
the nations." (12. 17.) 



Class II. — Prophecies relating to the Nations or Empires that were neigh- 
bouring to the Jews. 

1. The once prosperous city of Tyre, as Ezekiel had 
foretold, (xxvi. 3 — 5. 14. 21,) is now become like " the top 
of a rock, a place for fishers to dry their nets on." 

2. The prophecies concerning Egypt, (see Isai. xix. 
Jer. xliii. 8 — 13, and xlvi. ; and Ezek. xxix. — xxxii., par- 
ticularly Ezek. xxix. 10. 15, and xxx. 6. 12. 13,) have 
been signally fulfilled. 

Not long after these predictions were delivered, this country was suc- 
cessively attacked and conquered by the Babylonians and Persians; next 
It became subject to the Macedonians, then to the Romans, after them to 
the Saracens, then to the Mamelukes, and is now a province of the Turk- 
ish empire. And the denunciation — " I will make her rivers dry," is ful- 
filled by the generally neglected state of the numerous canals with which 
Egypt was anciently intersected. 

2. The doom of Ethiopia was foretold by Isaiah, 



42 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 

(xviii. 1 — 6, xx. 3 — 5, and xliii. 3,) and by Ezekiel, 
(xxx. 4 — 6.) 

This country was invaded by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, or by Esar- 
haddon his son, and also by Cambyses, King of Persia. About the time 
of Christ's birth, it was ravaged by the Romans, and has since been ra- 
vaged successively by the Saracens, Turks, and Giagas. 

4. Such an " utter end" has been made of Nineveh, 
agreeably to the predictions of Nahum, (i. 8, 9. ii. 8 — 13> 
iii. 17 — 19,) and Zephaniah, (ii. 13. 15,) that its very site 
cannot be ascertained. 

5. Babylon is made " a desolation forever," as Isaiah 

(xiii. 4. 19—22. xliv. 27,) and Jeremiah (1. 38. Ii. 7. 36, 

37. 64,] had severally foretold. 

This city was taken, when Belshazzar and his thousand princes were 
drunk at a great feast, after Cyrus had turned the course of the Euphrates, 
which ran through the midst of it, and so drained its waters that the river 
became easily fordable for his soldiers to enter the city. Its site cannot 
now be exactly determined. 

6. Daniel predicted the overthrow in succession of the 
four great Empires of antiquity ; the Babylonian, Per- 
sian, Grecian, and Roman. (Dan. ii. 39, 40. vii. 17 — 24 
viii.) This prediction has literally been fulfilled : but 
neither the rise of the last three, nor their fall, could have 
been foreseen by men. 



Class III. Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah. 

The great object of the prophecies of the Old Testa- 
ment is the redemption of mankind. This, as soon as 
Adam's fall had made it necessary, the mercy of God was 
pleased to foretel. And as the time for its accomplish- 
ment drew near, the predictions concerning it gradually 
became so clear, that almost every circumstance in the 
life and character of the most extraordinary personage, 
that ever appeared among men, was most distinctly fore- 
told. 

The prophecies announcing the Messiah are numerous, 
pointed, and particular. They not only foretel that a 
Messiah should come ; but they also specify the precise 
Time when he was to come; the Dignity of his Cha- 
racter, that he should be God and man together ; from 
whom he was to be descended ; the Place where he was 
to be born ; the circumstances of his Birth, Manner of 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 43 

Life and Doctrine, his sufferings and Death ; Resurrec- 
tion and Ascension ; and the Abolition of the Jewish Co- 
venant by the introduction of the Gospel. — See a Table 
of the Principal Prophecies relative to the Messiah, in the 
Appendix, No. VII. 

The connexion of the predictions belonging to the Mes- 
siah, with those which are confined to the Jewish people, 
gives additional force to the argument from prophecy ; 
affording a strong proof of the intimate union which sub- 
sists between the two dispensations of Moses and of Jesus 
Christ, and equally precluding the artful pretensions of 
human imposture, and the daring opposition of human 
power. The plan of prophecy was so wisely constituted, 
that the passions and prejudices of the Jews, instead of 
frustrating, fulfilled it, and rendered the person whom they 
regarded, the suffering and crucified Saviour, who had 
been promised. It is worthy of remark, that most of these 
predictions were delivered nearly, and some of them more 
than three thousand years ago. Anyone of them is sufficient 
to indicate a prescience more than human ; but the col- 
lective force of all taken together is such, that nothing 
more can be necessary to prove the interposition of Om 
niscience, than the establishment of their authenticity. 
And this, even at so remote a period as the present, we 
have already seen, is placed beyond all doubt. 



Class IV.— Prophecies by Jesus Christ and his Apostles. 
Jesus Christ foretold, 

1. The Circumstances of Ms own death ; Matt. xvi. 21. 
Mark x. 33, 34. Matt. xx. 18, 19. xxvi. 23. 31, all which were 
most minutely accomplished. 

2. His Resurrection; Matt. xvi. 21. xxvi. 32, fulfilled in 

Matt, xxviii. 

3. The Descent of the Holy Spirit; Luke xxiv. 49, Mark 
xvi. 17, 18, fulfilled in Acts ii. 

4. The Destruction of Jerusalem with all its preceding signs 
and its concomitant circumstances ; (Matt. xxiv. 1 — 28. Mark 
xiii. 1—23. Luke xxi. 5—24,) and the very generation that 
heard the prediction lived to be the miserable witnesses of its 
accomplishment. 

5. The Spread of Christianity ; and both sacred and profane 
historians bear testimony to the rapid propagation of the 
Gospel. 



44 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 

The character of the age, in which the Christian Faith was 
first propagated, must be considered. 

It was not barbarous and uncivilized, but was remarkable 
for those improvements by which the human faculties were 
strengthened. 

The profession of Christianity was followed by no worldly 
advantage, but, on the contrary, with proscriptions and perse- 
cutions. 

Sceptics, particularly Mr. Gibbon, have endeavoured to 
account for the miraculous success of Christianity from 
causes merely human, viz. 

(1.) The inflexible and intolerant Zeal of the first 
Christians, 

This indeed might supply Christians with that fortitude which 
should keep them firm to their principles : but it could hardly 
be of service in converting infidels. No intolerance, however, 
existed among the primitive Christians ; but, on the contrary, 
among their heathen persecutors. 

(2.) The Doctrine of a Future Life. 

The success which attended the preaching of this doctrine, 
was owing rather to the demonstration of the spirit and of the 
power that accompanied it, than to the doctrine itself, which 
was by no means suited either to the expectations or the wishes 
of the Pagans in general. Men must have believed the Gos- 
pel, generally, before they believed the doctrine of a future life 
on its authority. 

(3.) The Miraculous Poioers ascribed to the Primitive 
Church. 

The actual possession of such powers by the apostles and 
first preachers of Christianity has already been proved. But 
when the numerous pretended miracles ascribed to the popular 
deities of the heathen, and the contempt in which they were 
held by the philosophers and by other thinking men, are con- 
sidered, the miracles ascribed to the first propagators of Chris- 
tianity, must have created a prejudice against their cause, 
which nothing could have subdued but miracles really and 
visibly performed. 

(4.) The Virtues of the first Christians. 

These Mr. Gibbon reduces to a mean and timid repentance 
for sins, and zeal in supporting the reputation of their society. 
But such virtues would have equally excited opposition to 
Christianity. The infidel historian does not account for the 
exemplary virtues of the first Christians ; whose virtues arose 
from their faith, and not their faith from their virtues. 

(5.) The Union and Discipline of the Christian Re- 
public, as he terms the Christian Church. 



THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 45 

But it is an incontrovertible fact, that the Gospel was propa- 
gated, before its professors were sufficiently numerous to esta- 
blish a discipline, or to form themselves into a society. 

V. Notwithstanding the variety and force of the evi- 
dence in favour of Christianity, its opposers continue to 
raise a variety of objections, viz. 

Objection 1. — The rejection of Christianity by the 
unbelieving Jews, in the time of Christ, and also by the 
greater part of the Gentiles. 

In reply to this objection, we may 

Answer 1. — As to the Jews — That the Almighty does not 
force the judgment, and that their wickedness and strong pre- 
judices blinded their understandings, and prevented them from 
receiving the evidences of the Gospel. Anger, resentment, 
self-interest, and worldly-mindedness induced the scribes and 
Pharisees to reject Christ and cause him to be put to death, and 
to prevail upon the people at large to reject the Gospel. Such 
were the principal causes of the infidelity of the Jews and of 
their rejection of Christ at first: nor is it difficult to conceive 
what may be the reasons of their persisting in their infidelity 
now. For 

(1.) In the first place, on the part of the Jews, most (if not 
all) the same reasons which gave birth to their infidelity, con- 
tinue to nourish it, particularly their obstinacy, their vain hopes 
and expectations of worldly greatness, and the false Christs and 
false prophets who at different times have risen up among 
them. To which may be added their want of charitableness 
towards Christians, and their continuing to live insulated from 
the rest of mankind. 

(2.) Secondly, on the part of the world, the obstacles are, 
the prevalence of Mohammedism, and other false religions, the 
schisms of Christians, the unholy lives of many nominal Chris- 
tians, and the cruelties, which have at various times been in- 
flicted on this unhappy people. So far, however, is the infi- 
delity of the Jews from being an objection to the truth of the 
Gospel, that, on the contrary, it affords us a great number of 
unsuspected witnesses to the truth of the Old Testament : and 
many predictions of Moses and the prophets, of Christ and his 
apostles, are remarkably fulfilled, It is also a great advantage 
to the Christian Religion, to have been first preached and 
propagated in a nation of unbelievers : for nothing but divine 
truth could have stood the trial, and triumphed over all oppo- 
sition. 

Answer 2. — With regard to the rejection of the Gospel by 
the Gentiles, many of the preceding observations on the infi- 
delity of the Jews are equally applicable to them. Both Jews 
and Gentiles were influenced by the prejudices of education, — 
by hatred of the pure morality of the Gospel,— by the temporal 
inconveniences which attended the profession of Christianity, 
and the temporal advantages to be obtained by rejecting or 
opposing it,— by the mean appearance, which Christ had made 



46 DIVINE AUTHORITY OP 

in the world, — and by his ignominious death, which they knew 
not how to reconcile with the divine power ascribed to him by 
his disciples. 

The Gentiles also had other causes of unbelief peculiar to 
themselves, viz. the high notion, entertained by them, of the 
efficacy of magic, of charms and incantations, and of the 
power of demons and demi-gods ;— their indifference about, reli- 
gion in genera], — the utter incompatibility of Christianity with 
the established worship of their several countries, — the bad 
opinion which they had of the Jews in general, of whom Chris- 
tians were for some time accounted to be a sect, — the false doc- 
trines and crimes of heretical teachers and vicious professors 
of Christianity, — and lastly, the antiquity of paganism. 

Objection 2. — The prevalence of Mohammedism over 
a considerable portion of the world. 

_ Answer. — The prophecies are fulfilled, when all parts of the 
world shall have had the offer of Christianity ; but it by no 
means follows that it shall be upheld among them by a miracle. 
The present state of those countries, where the Koran is re- 
ceived, is an accomplishment of prophecy ; inasmuch as it was 
foretold that such an apostacy would take place. The rapid 
progress of Mohammedism is not to be compared with the 
propagation of Christianity, for Mohammed came into the 
world at a time exactly suited to his purposes, when its policy 
and civil state were favourable to a new and ambitious con- 
queror: and he availed himself of every means, especially 
force of arms, to promote the diffusion of his pretended reve- 
lation. 

Objection 3. — Christianity is known only to a small 
portion of mankind. 

Answer.— For one who professes deism, we shall find in the 
world one thousand who profess Christianity. 

The partial propagation of the Gospel, with the other objec- 
tions brought against Christianity, having rendered its divine 
original a matter of dispute, the tendency of these disputes has 
been to separate the wheat from the chaff, and to make Chris- 
tians draw their religion from the Scriptures alone. 

The not having more evidence for the truth of the Gospel is 
not a sufficient reason for rejecting that which "we already have. 
If such evidence were irresistible, it would restrain the volun- 
tary powers too much, to answer the purpose of trial and pro 
bation. "Men's moral probation maybe, whether they will 
take due care to inform themselves by impartial consideration ; 
and afterwards, whether they will act as the case requires, upon 
the evidence they have." Further, if the evidence of the 
Gospel were irresistible, it would leave no room for internal 
evidence. They who sincerely act ? or endeavour to act accord- 
ing to the just result of the probabilities in natural and reveal- 
ed religion, seldom fail of proceeding further ; while those, 
who act in a contrary manner, necessarily fail to perceive the 
force of the evidences for the truth of the Gospel. 



INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF THE SCRIPTURES. 47 

VI. Objections have been made to the darkness and 
uncertainty of prophecy, which have been ascribed. 
1. To its Language ; and 2. To the Indistinctness of Us 
Representations. 

Answer I. — With regard to prophetic Language^ as pro- 
phecy is a peculiar species of writing, it is natural to expect a 
peculiarity in the language of which it makes use. Sometimes 
it employs plain terms, but most commonly figurative ones. It 
has symbols of its own, which are common to all the prophets ; 
and these symbols have their appropriate rules of interpre- 
tation. 

Answer 2. — With respect to the alleged Indistinct Repre- 
sentations of events predicted, it should be remembered, that, 
if some prophecies be obscure, others are clear : the latter fur- 
nish a proof of the inspiration of the Scriptures, the former 
contain nothing against it. Some predictions were to have 
their accomplishment in the early ages of the church, while 
others were designed for the benefit of those who lived in 
after ages. 

Answer 3. — Another reason for throwing a veil over the 
face of prophecy will appear on considering the nature of the 
subject. Some of the events predicted are of such a nature, 
that the fate of nations depends upon them ; and they are to 
be brought into existence by the instrumentality of men. In 
the present form of prophecy, men are left entirely to them- 
selves ; and they fulfil the prophecies without intending, or 
hinking, or knowing that they do so. The accomplishment 
strips off the veil, and then the evidence from prophecy appears 
in all its splendour. 



CHAPTER V. 

INTERNAL EVIDENCES OP THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

Section I.— The System of Doctrine and the Moral Precepts, which are 
delivered in the Scriptures, are so excellent and so perfectly holy, that 
the Persons who published them to the World, must have derived them 
from a purer and more exalted Source than their own Meditations. 

The sacred volume opens with an account of the crea- 
tion of the world by the Almighty, and of the formation 
of man in a happy state of purity and innocence. In 
this account there is nothing but what is agreeable to right 
reason, as well as the most ancient traditions which have 
obtained among the nations. We are further informed, 
that man fell from that state by sinning against his Maker ; 
and that sin brought death into the world, together with 
all the miseries to which the human race is now obnoxious; 



4S INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 

but that the merciful Parent of our being, in his gieat 
goodness and compassion, was pleased to make such reve- 
lations and discoveries of his mercy, as laid a proper 
foundation for the faith and hope of his offending creatures, 
and for the exercise of religion towards him. (Gen. iii.) 
Accordingly, the religion delivered in the Scriptures is the 
religion of man in his lapsed state : and every one, who 
impartially and carefully investigates and considers it, 
will find, that one scheme of religion and of moral duty, 
substantially the same, is carried throughout the whole, till 
it was brought to its full perfection and accomplishment by 
Jesus Christ. This religion may be considered principally 
under three periods, viz. 

1. The Religion of the Patriarchal Times ; 

2. The Doctrines and Precepts of the Mosaic Dispen- 
sation ; and 

3. The Doctrines and Precepts of the Christian Reve- 
--alioii. 



§ l.— A Concise View of the Religion of the Patriarchal Times. 

The Book of Genesis exhibits to us a clear idea of the 
P jmarchal Theology, which taught 

I. Concerning the nature and attributes of God : 

That He is the Creator, Governor, and Preserver of all things ; that He 
is eternal, omniscient, true, omnipotent, holy, and just, kind, supreme, 
merciful, long-suffering, gracious towards them that fear Him, and that 
He is not the Author of Sin. 

[I. Concerning the Worship of God: 

The Patriarchs held that it was the duty of men to fear Him, to bless 
Him for mercies received, and to supplicate Him with profound humility ; 
that the knowledge of God is to he promoted; vows made to Him are to 
be performed, and idolatry is to be renounced. With regard to the exter- 
nal rites of religion, the most ancient on record is that of offering sacri- 
fice ; and the Sabbath also appears to have been observed by the Patri- 
archs. 

III. With regard to the Moral Duties between man 
and man : 

These likewise are clearly announced, either by way of precept or by 
example; more particularly, the duties of children to honour their 
parents, of parents to instil religious principles into the minds of their 
offspring, and of servants to obey their masters. Wars may be waged in 
a good cause. Anger is sinful in the sight of God ; strifes are to be avoid- 
ed ; murder is prohibited ; hospitality is to be exercised ; and injuries are 
to be forgiven. Matrimony is appointed by God, from whom a virtuous 



THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 49 

wife is to be sought by prayer ; and a wife is to be subject to her husband. 
Children are the gift of God ; and adultery and all impurity are to be 
avoided, 



§ 2.— A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of the Mosaic 
Dispensation. 

The Mosaic Dispensation was substantially the same as 
that given to the Patriarchs, but with the addition of a 
special covenant made by the Almighty with a particular 
people, for wise and moral purposes worthy of the Su- 
preme Being, and beneficial in its results to the whole 
human race. 

I. In the Mosaic Law the essential Unity of God is 
most explicitly inculcated, no less than His underived self- 
existence, eternity, immutability, omnipotence, providence, 
justice, mercy, and other perfections. And the same 
sublime representations of the Divine Being and Perfec- 
tions are made by the prophets and other inspired writers 
among the Jews. 

II. Concerning the Duty of Man towards God, — both 
Moses and the Prophets enforce the obligation of loving 
Him, fearing Him, believing in Him, trusting in His pro 
mises, and obeying all His commandments ; together with 
the duties of patience and resignation to the divine will, 
and the internal worship of the heart. 

III. The belief of a Future State, which was held by 
the Patriarchs, (though not explicitly taught by Moses, 
whose writings pre-suppose it as a generally adopted arti- 
cle of religion,) was transmitted from them to the Israel- 
ites, and appears in various parts of the Old Testament. 

The Book of Job is very explicit on this subject ; David has spoken of 
it with great confidence, particularly in Psalms xxi. xxxvi. xlix. lxxiii. 
and cxxxix. ; and Solomon expressly alludes to it in Proverbs v. 21 — 23. 
xiv. 32, and Eccles. iii. 16, 17, and viii. 11. 13. This doctrine is also incul- 
cated, and pre-supposed as a matter of popular belief, by the prophets 
Isaiah (xiv. 19. xxvi. 19 — 21,) Hosea (xiii. 14,) Amos (iv. 12, 13.) ana 
Daniel (viii. 9—14. xii. 1—3.) 

IV. The Expectation of a Redeemer, which bad been 
cherished by the Patriarchs, was also kept up by various 
predictions, delivered by Moses and the prophets. 

V. The Morality of the Jewish Code exhibits a per- 
fection and beauty in no respect inferior to its religious 
doctrines and duties. We owe to it the decalogue — a 
manual of duty to God and man, so pure and comprehen- 



50 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 

sive, as to be absolutely without parallel : and the sanc- 
tions of the remaining enactments of the law are such as 
morality possessed in no other nation. More particularly, 

1. It taught humility and meekness. 

2. It prohibited all uncleanness and unnatural lusts, as well as drunk- 
enness, gluttony, and all covetous desires. 

3. Our duty towards our neighbour is also cl early set forth (Lev it. xix. 
18,; together with all the social and relative duties of life. 

4. Every kind of justice was strictly required by the law of Moses. 
Murder was forbidden by the sixth commandment, adultery by the 
seventh, and theft by the eighth. All kinds of violence, oppression, and 
fraud were also forbidden. 

5. All hatred and malice were prohibited ; nor were kind offices to be 
confined to brethren and friends ; they were also to be performed to ene- 
mies and to strangers. Nay, mercy was to be extended even to the brute 
creation. 

VI. The Mosaic Dispensation was introductory to 
Christianity. 

The Law of Moses, though not absolutely perfect, had a perfection suit- 
ed to its kind and design. It was adapted to the genius of the people to 
whom it was given, and calculated to keep them distinct from the rest of 
mankind, and to prevent them from being involved in the idolatries com- 
mon among other nations. It was at the same time ordained to pre-sig- 
nify good things to come, and to bear a strong attestation to the truth ot 
the Christian Religion. 

But, however excellent in itself, and admirably adapted 
to the purposes for which it was designed, the Mosaic 
Dispensation was only of a local and temporary nature, 
and preparatory to that fuller manifestation of the divine 
will, which " in the fulness of time" was to be made known 
to the world under the Gospel Dispensation. 



§ 3.— A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of the Gospei 
Dispensation. 

I. The whole Character and Conduct of the Founder 
of Christianity proved him to be a divine person. Never 
indeed was there so perfect a character, so godlike, vene- 
rable, and amiable, and so utterly remote from that of an 
enthusiast or an impostor. 

II. The Leading Doctrines of the Gospel are worthy 
of the character of the Almighty, and adaDted to the ne- 
cessities of mankind. More particularly, 

1. The Account of God and of his Perfections, is worthy of the highest 
and most excellent of all beings. Of all the views of God which had 
ever been given, none was so calculated to endear Him to us, and to in- 
spire our hearts with confidence, as this short but interesting description, 
of which the scheme of redemption affords a sublime illustration— "Gob 
Is Lovb '" 



THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 5j 

2. What men had, in all ages, wifhed for in vain — an Atonement for 
sin, (which conscience and their natural notions of divine justice taught 
them to be necessary)— the Sacred Books point out in the death of Jesus, 
which, in consequence of the dignity of his person, our reason perceives 
to have been of sufficient value to expiate the guilt of innumerable 
millions. 

3. The divine justice being satisfied, we are assured of the Forgiveness 
of our Sins, through Jesus Christ, upon sincere repentance; and our siim 
being forgiven, we are justified, or " accounted righteous before God, only 
for the merit of our Lord Jesus Christ, by faith, and not for our own merits 
or deservings." 

4. In the Gospel we find the best principles of comfort and refreshment 
to the soul, under all the calamities and afflictions of life, as well as a 
rich magazine of all means proper for the sanctification of our souls, and 
our most successful advances in true piety. In the Scriptures we see that 
the Holy Spirit is ready with his mighty aids (which are promised to all 
who humbly pray for them,) to assist, enlighten, and strengthen our spirits 
in proportion to our sincere desires and endeavours after godliness ; and 
there we are directed every day and at all times, to seek unto God, through 
Christ, by fervent and believing prayer, for his guidance and protection, 
and are assured that we shall never seek his face in vain. 

5. In favour of the Immortality of the Soul, a point so important, but 
which to the wisest of the Gentiles seemed so doubtful, the Scriptures 
speak in the most decisive language, and hold out to the hopes and fears 
of mankind rewards and punishments suited to their nature, and which 
it is worthy of God to dispense. 

6. Lastly, in the Gospel we see the dead both small and great restored 
to life, and appearing before the tribunal of God, to receive a sentence, 
" according to the deeds done in the body." The glories of heaven, which 
are reserved " for them that love him," and the everlasting miseries, 
which will be the terrible portion of all the wilfully impenitent workers 
of iniquity, are disclosed in the Scriptures: which alone set forth the true 
reason of our being in this world, viz. not for enjoyment but for trial ; not 
to gain temporal pleasures or possessions, but that our souls may be dis- 
ciplined and prepared for immortal honour and glory. While the divine 
displeasure is declared against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of 
men, and the most awful warnings are denounced against sinners, the 
means by which they may obtain mercy are clearly displayed and offered 
to them. 

Tn all these doctrines we observe nothing low, or mean, 
or frivolous : every one of them is grand, sublime, and 
worthy of God ; every one of them is most deeply inte 
resting to man ; and, altogether, they make up an infinitely 
more consistent and rational scheme of belief, than the 
most distinguished sages of antiquity ever did contrive, 
or the most cunning of modern unbelievers can possibly 
invent. 

III. The Moral Precepts of the Gospel are admira- 
bly adapted to the actual state of mankind. 

1. As to the Duties between man and man, the Gospel particularly en- 
joins integrity of conduct, charity, forgiveness of injuries. 

2. It lays down the duties incumbent upon us in the several relations 
which we sustain in civil and social life ; for instance, the mutual duties 
of governors and subjects, masters and servants, husbands and wives, 
parents and children. 



52 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 

3. It enforces, and recommends by various considerations, the personal 
duties of sobriety, temperance, chastity, humility, &c. ; and guards ua 
against an immoderate passion for transient worldly riches ; while it 
affords us the best remedies against anxious cares, excessive sorrows, and 
desponding fears. While it enjoins trust in God, it directs us to the use 
of all honest and proper means and industry on our parts. 

4. The Holiness of the moral precepts of the Gospel is another proof of 
its divine origin. All its precepts aim directly at the heart ; teaching us 
to refer all our actions to the will of our Creator, and correcting all self- 
ishness in the human character, by teaching us to have in view the hap- 
piness of those about us. 

5. The Manner in which the morality of the Gospel is delivered attests 
Its divine origin. 

Among- the heathen, no provision was made for the moral 
instruction of the unlettered multitude : but Christ taught all 
that would listen to him, with inimitable plainness and sim- 
plicity, and at the same time with the most perfect modesty 
and delicacy, blended, with the utmost boldness and integrity. 

The character of Christ forms an essential part of the mo- 
rality of the Gospel. To the morality of almost every other 
teacher, some stain attaches: but he is charged, by no vice 
either by friends or by enemies. In each of the four narratives 
of his life, besides the absence of every appearance of vice, we 
perceive traces of devotion, humility, patience, benignity, be- 
nevolence, mildness, and prudence. In short, the New Testa- 
ment is replete with piety and devotional virtues, which were 
unknown to the ancient heathen moralists. 

IV. Superiority of the Motives to duty presented by 
the Gospel. 

However excellent and complete a rule of moral duty may 
be in itself, it will not and cannot answer the end proposed, un- 
less it be enjoined by a proper authority, and enforced by the 
most powerful motives. Now in this respect the religious and 
moral precepts of the Gospel have an infinite advantage over 
every other system of doctrine or of morals ; for they are urged 
upon us as the commands of the Eternal God himself, and are 
enforced by various motives, which are admirably adapted to 
influence the human heart. These motives are drawn, 

1. From a consideration of the Reasonableness of the Duty recom- 
mended or enforced, or the infamy of the vice from which Christians are 
dissuaded. See instances of this in Rom. xii. 1. Acts iv. 19. Rom. x 
12, 13, and Phil. iv. 8. 

2. The singular Favours conferred upon us by God, as in Acts iii. 26. 
1 Cor. vi. 20. Eph. iv. 32. Tit. ii. 14. 

3. The Example of Christ. Matt. xi. 29. Eph. V. 2. Rom. XV. 2, 3. 
Phil. ii. 3—5. 1 Pet. i. 15. 

4. The Sanctions of Duty which the civil relations among men have 
received from God : as in Rom. xiii. 2. 4, 5. Eph. vi. 5—7. 9. Col. iii. 22, 

5. The Regard which Christians owe to their holy profession. Eph. iv. 
1—3. I Thess. ii. 12. Phil. i. 27. Tit. ii. 10. 

6. The Acceptableness of true Repentance, and the assurance of pardon 
to the really penitent. 

7. The Divine Assistance, offered to support men in the performance 
of their duty. John xiv. 16. 1 Cor. iii. 13. vi. 16. Luke xi. 13. 2 Cor. 
Xiii. 14. Heb. iv. 16. 

8. Our Relation to Heaven^ while upon earth. Phil. iii. 20. 1 Pet, ii. 11. 
9.' The Rewards and Punishvtents proclaimed in the Gospel. 



THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 53 

All these sublime lessons of morality are found in various 
parts of the New Testament. They enrich the divine sermon 
on the mount ; and they are contained in the excellent para- 
bles delivered by Jesus Christ ; they are also to be found in 
the discourses and epistles of the apostles. Wherever indeed 
we open the Christian volume, we may find some direction, 
which, if properly observed, would render us good neighbours, 
good members of society, good friends, and good men. Is it 
possible, then, to doubt the divine original of a system, which 
furnishes such rules, and contemplates so glorious an object? 

All these sublime moral precepts and motives are found 
in various parts of the New Testament. How the writers 
of that volume should be able to draw up a system of 
morals, which the world, after the lapse of eighteen cen- 
turies, cannot improve, while it perceives numberless 
faults in those of the philosophers of India, Greece and 
Rome, and of the opposers of revelation, is a question of 
fact, for which the candid deist is concerned to account in 
a rational way. The Christian is able to do it with ease 
The Evangelists and the Apostles of Jesus Christ " spake 
as they were moved by the Holy Spirit." 



§ 4. — On the Objections of Unbelievers to the Doctrines and Morality of 
the Bible. 

Objection I. — Some of the peculiar doctrines which 
the Scriptures propound to our belief, are mysterious and 
contrary to reason : and, where mystery begins, religion 
ends. 

Answer. — This assertion is erroneous : for nothing is so mysterious as 
the eternity and self- existence of God ; yet, to believe that God exists, is 
the foundation of all religion. We cannot comprehend the common ope 
rations of nature ; and if we ascend to the higher departments of science 
— even to the science of demonstration itself, the mathematics — we shall 
find that mysteries exist there. 

Mysteries in the Christian Religion, instead of being suspected, should 
rather be regarded as a proof of its divine origin : for, if nothing more 
were contained in the New Teotament than we previously knew, or 
nothing more than we could easily comprehend, we might justly doubt 
if it came from God, and whether it was not rather a work of man's 
device. 

Further, the mysteries which appear most contrary to reason, are closely 
connected with the truths and facts of which reason is convinced. 

Though some of the truths revealed in the Scriptures are mysterious, 
yet the tendency of the most exalted of its mysteries, is practical. If, for 
instance, we cannot explain the influences of the Spirit, happy will it be 
for us, nevertheless, if we experience that the " fruits of the spirit are 
love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, 
temperance. '■' 



54 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 

Objection II. — The scripture doctrine of redemption 
is inconsistent with the ideas, which are now generally re- 
ceived concerning the magnitude of creation. 

Answer. — The comparative dimension of our world is of no account : 
if it be large enough for the accomplishment of events, which are suffi- 
cient to occupy the minds of all intelligences, that is all which is re- 
quired. 

Objection III. — The doctrine of a future judgment 
is improbable : and the two-fold sanction of rewards and 
punishments is of human invention. 

Answer — It is hut reasonable, that the same person, by whom God 
carried on his merciful design of recovering mankind from a state of sin, 
who felt our infirmities, and was tempted as we are, should be appointed 
the final judge of all men, and the dispenser of future retribution. 

Lord Bolingbroke intimates, that the notion whereon the sanction of 
future rewards and punishment is founded, savours more of human pas- 
sions than of justice or prudence; and that it implies, that the proceed- 
ings of God towards men in this life are unjust, if they need rectifying in 
a future one. But the present life is a state of trial, to fit us for a future 
and better condition of being. Though justice requires that rewards and 
punishments should, in this world, be proportioned to the different degrees 
of virtue and vice; facts prove that this is not the case. If therefore 
there be no recompense hereafter, injustice must characterise the divine 
government, and the Christian doctrine alone vindicates the ways of God 
to man. 

Lord Shaftesbury argues against the doctrine of future rewards and 
punishments, as affording a mercenary and selfish motive to virtue, 
which ought to be practised because it is good and amiable in itself. It 
will however be seen, that this is not the case, if it be considered that the 
Christian looks for his reward, only to higher improvements in useful 
knowledge and moral goodness, and to the exalted enjoyments which re- 
sult from these. But it is a proper reason to choose virtue, because it 
will make us happy ; for man has a natural desire of life and happiness, 
and a fear of losing them ; and a desire of well-being may conspire with 
the rest in the discipline of the mind, and assist the growth of more libe- 
ral principles. 

Further, when this respect to a future recompense is the effect of a de- 
liberate trust in the Judge of the universe, an acquiescence in his govern- 
ment, and a belief that he is the rewarder of such as faithfully seek hirn, 
and disposes us to well-doing, it becomes religious faith, the first duty of 
rational beings, and a firm bond of virtue, private, social, and divine. 

Objection IV. — Christianity establishes a system of 
priestcraft and spiritual despotism over the minds and 
consciences of men. 

Answer. — Christianity establishes no such thing. That there should be 
teachers of religion, to insu-uct men in its principles, to enforce its pre- 
cepts, and to administer its consolations, has nothing in it contraiy to the 
fitness of things, and the public good. This argument acquires additional 
weight, when we consider the qualifications which the New Testament 
requires of the different orders of Christian ministers. See particularly 
1 Tim. iil. 1—7. iv. 11, 12. 16. 2 Cor. vi. 3. 2 Tim. ii. 22. 24, 25. 1 Tim. 
iv 12, 13, 14. 1 Tim. iii. 8—10. 

It has however been said, that the most extravagant claims to wealth 
and power have been made by men, who call themselves minisfers of the 
Gospel. But with these claims Christianity is not chargeable. The New 



THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 55 

Testament establishes the support of the ministers of religion on a rea- 
sonable footing. Is it thought equitable, that those who teach philosophy 
and the learned languages should be recompensed for their labour 1 The 
Gospel sets the maintenance of its ministers on the same footing (see 
Luke x. 7. 1 Cor. ix. 11—14;) but it does not countenance in them any 
claim of either power or wealth. 

Objection V. — The Gospel prohibits free inquiry, and 
demands a full and implicit assent, without any previous 
examination. 

Answer.— The contrary is the fact. The Gospel not only invites but 
demands investigation : free inquiry is not prejudicial, but in the highest 
degree beneficial to Christianity, whose evidences shine the more clearly, 
in proportion to the rigour with which they are examined. 

Objection VI. — The Morality of the Bible is too strict, 
and lays mankind under too severe restraints. 

Answer. — The contrary is the case : for the morality of the Bible restrains 
us only from what would be hurtful to ourselves or to others, while it 
allows of every truly rational, sober, and humane pleasure. 

Objection VII. — Some of the Moral Precepts of Jesus 
Christ are unreasonable and impracticable. 

Answer.— A candid examination of a few of the precepts objected to, 
will show how little foundation there is for such an assertion. For, 

1. The prohibition of anger, in Matt. v. 22, condemns only implacable 
anger, — sinful anger unrppented of. The same restriction must be undei - - 
stood respecting other general assertions of Jesus, as Matt. x. 33, which 
cannot apply to Peter. 

2. The precept of Jesus Christ to forgive injuries, has been asserted to 
be contrary to reason and nature. 

A few of the most eminent heathen philosophers, however, have given 
the same direction; particularly Socrates, Cicero, Seneca, and Confucius. 

It has further been objected that this precept is given in a general and 
indefinite way : whereas there are certain necessary restrictions. 

Assuredly. But these exceptions are so plain, that they will always be 
supposed, and consequently need not to be specified. The Christian reli- 
gion makes no alteration in the natural rights of mankind, nor does it for- 
bid necessary self-defence, or seeking legal redress of injuries in cases 
where it may be expedient to restrain violence and outrage. The substance 
of what :t recommends, relates chiefly to the temper of the mind. 

3. Against the injunction to love our enemies, it has been argued, " If 
lore carry with it complacence, esteem, and friendship, and these are due 
to all men, — what distinction can we then make between the best and worst 
of men ?" 

But, ir> this precept, as in all moral writings " love" signifies benevo- 
lence and good will; which maybe exercised by kind actions towards 
those whom we cannot esteem, and whom we are even obliged to 
punish. 

4. The commandment to " love our neighbour as ourselves," is also ob- 
jected to as unreasonable, and impossible to be observed. 

In moral writings, love (as we have just noticed) signifies good will ex- 
pressing itself in the conduct. Now, this precept of Jesus Christ may be 
understood, 

(I.) As enjoining the same kind of affection to our fellow creature as to 
ourselves, disposing us to avoid his misery, and to consult his happiness 
as well as our own. Or, 

(2.) It may require us to love our neighbour in some certain proportion 
as we love ourselves. The love of our neighbour must bear some pro 



56 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 

porti«n to self-love, and virtue consists in the due proportion . of it. Or, 

(3.) The precept may be understood of an equality of affection. Moral 
obligation can extend no further than to natural possibility. Now, we 
have a perception of our own interests, like the consciousness of our own 
existence, which we always carry about with us ; and which, in its con- 
tinuation, kind, and degree, seems impossible to be felt with respect to the 
interests of others. Therefore, were we to love our neighbour in the same 
degree (so far as this is possible) as we love ourselves, yet the care of our- 
selves would not be neglected. 

The precepts, — to " do to others as we would have them do to us," and 
to " love our neighbour as ourselves," — are not merely intelligible and 
comprehensive rules : but thpy also furnish the means of determining the 
particular cases which are included under them: and they are likewise 
useful means of moral improvement, and afford a good test of a person's 
progress in benevolence. 

5. The command to believe in Jesus Christ, and the sanctions by which 
it is enforced, — "he that believeth and is baptised, shall be saved, but he 
that believeth not shall be condemned," (Mark xvi. 16,) — have been ob- 
jected against : and it has been said that " Faith, considered in itself, can 
neither be a virtue nor a vice, because men can no otherwise believe than 
as things appear to them." 

Yet, that they appear in such a particular manner to the understanding of 
individuals, maybe owing entirely to themselves. All threatenings, more- 
over, must be understood of unbelievers, who had sufficient light and evi- 
dence afforded them, and who, through inattention, neglect, wilful preju- 
dice, or from corrupt passions and vices have rejected the Gospel, as Christ 
himself says in John iii. 19, and xv. 22. 

Objection VIII. — Christianity produces a timid pas- 
sive spirit, and also entirely overlooks the generous senti- 
ments of friendship and patriotism. 

Answer 1. Christianity omits precepts founded upon false principles, 
such as recommend fictitious virtues, which, however admired and cele- 
brated, are productive of no salutary effects, and in fact are no virtues 
at all. 

Valour, for instance, is for the most part constitutional ; and, when not 
under the control of true religion, so far is it from producing any salutary 
effects by introducing peace, order, or happiness into society, that it is the 
usual perpetrator of all the violences, which, from retaliated injuries, dis- 
tract the world with bloodshed and devastation. But, though Christianity 
exhibits no commendation of fictitious virtues, it is so far from generating 
a timid spirit, that, on the contrary, it forms men of a singular courage. 
It teaches them to be afraid of offending God, and of doing injury to man; 
but it labours to render them superior to every other fear. The lives of 
Christians have, in numberless instances, displayed the efficacy of its di- 
vine principles, which have enabled them to sustain unexampled active 
exertion, persevering labour, and patient suffering. 

2. With regard to Friendship, various satisfactory reasons may be as- 
signed why Jesus Christ did not enact any laws concerning it. 

[i.] A pure and sincere friendship must be a matter of choice, and re- 
luctant to the very appearance of compulsion. 

[ii.] It depends upon similarity of disposition, and coincidence of 
sentiment and affection, and upon a variety of circumstances not within 
our control, or our choice. 

[iii.] Partial attachments, which usually led persons to prefer their 
friends to the public, would not be favourable to the general virtue and 
happiness. But though the Gospel makes no provision for friendship, it 
does not prohibit that connexion, but rather sanctions it by the example 
of Christ himself; whose attachment to Lazarus and his family, and to 



INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 57 

John the beloved disciple, may satisfy us of his approbation of friendship 
both as a duty and as an enjoyment. 

3. With respect to Patriotism, — if by this be meant a bigoted, selfish, or 
fiery love of our country, which leads us to seek its aggrandisement, re- 
gardless of the morality of the means by which that is accomplished, it is 
no virtue. 

But Jesus Christ virtually established the duty of patriotism, by esta- 
blishing the principle from which it flows, viz. the universal obligation 
of justice and love ; leading us to do good unto all men, but especially 
unto them who are of the household of faith, and enforcing more than 
ordinary affection between husbands and wives, parents and children, 
brethren and sisters. In all which cases he has decided that every addi- 
tional tie, by which man is connected with man, is an obligation to addi- 
tional love. Above all, Christ himself, by his own conduct, sanctioned, 
exemplified, and commanded patriotism. 

Objection IX. — The Bible is the most immoral book 

in the world. 

Answer. — A candid examination of the morality of the Scriptures, most 
completely refutes this assertion. If, indeed, the Bible be an immoral bock, 
how is it that the reading of this book should have reclaimed millions 
from immorality 1 — a fact, too notorious to be denied by any impartial ob- 
server. Further, many of the immoral statements, which are said (but 
which cannot be proved) to exist in the Bible, are founded on a wilful in- 
attention to the difference which exists between ancient and modern 
manners. The characteristic of modern manners is the free intercourse 
of the two sexes in the daily commerce of life and conversation. Hence 
the peculiar system of modern manners ; hence that system of decorum, 
delicacy, and modesty (founded on the morality of Scripture) which be- 
long entirely to this relation of the sexes, and to the state of society in 
which it exists. But in the ancient world there was nothing of this in- 
tercourse. Besides, the immoral actions which are recorded in Scripture, 
are not related for our imitation, but for our caution. 

Objection. X. The Bible inculcates a spirit of intole- 
rance and persecution. 

Answer. — The religion of Jesus Christ has been represented as of an un- 
social, unsteady, surly, and solitary complexion, tending to destroy every 
other but itself. It does, indeed, tend to destroy every other, but in the 
same manner as truth in every subject tends to destroy falsehood, that is, 
by rational conviction. Jesus Christ uniformly discountenanced bigotry 
and intolerance in his disciples. Distinctions of nations, sects, or parties, 
as such, to him were nothing: distinctions of truth and falsehood, right 
and wrong, were to him every thing. 

The moderation and liberality of pagan governments have been eulo- 
gised by the opposers of Christianity, who have asserted that persecution 
for religion was indebted for its first rise to the Christian system. The 
very reverse is the fact. Ancient history records numerous instances of 
pagan governments that persecuted the professors of other religions. 

Thus, the Athenians put Socrates to death, on account of his religiou* 
tenets; and Antiochus Epiphanes exercised the most horrid cruelties 
against the Jews for their religion. (1 Mac. i. 40 — 64,) Tiberius prohibited; 
the Egyptian and Jewish worship, banished the Jews from Rome, and re- 
strained the worship of the Druids in Gaul, while Claudius had recourse 
to penal laws, to abolish their religion. Domitian and Vespasian banished 
the philosophers from Rome, and the former confined some of them in the 
islands, and whipped or put others to death. The violent means and cruel 
persecutions, which were adopted by pagan governors to annihilate the 
Christian religion, for three hundred years after its first origin, are too 
well known to be controverted. 

Men, indeed, calling themselves Christians, have cruelly persecutes 



58 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OP 

others ; DUt the Gospel does not authorise such a conduct, and therefore 
is not chargeable with it. And facts and experience have proved (par- 
ticularly m Fiance during the revolution,) that not the friends but the 
enemies of the Gospel, — not sincere believers, but apostates and atheists, — 
have been the most cruel oppressors and persecutors, and the greatest 
enemies both of civil and religious liberty. 



Section II. — The wonderful Harmony and intimate'Connexion subsisting 
between all the Parts of Scripture, are a further proof of its Divine 
Authority and Original. 

Most of the writers of the Scriptures lived at very dif- 
ferent times, and in distant places, through the long period 
of sixteen hundred years, so that there could be no con- 
federacy or collusion : and yet their relations agree with, 
and mutually support, each other. 

The same essential agreement, and the same dependency 
of one upon another, obtains also among the chief practical 
precepts, as well as between the doctrines and precepts 
of Christianity. 

Objection. — There are contradictions to morality as 
tvell as among the different writers themselves. 

Answer. — These contradictions, as they are termed, are seeming only, 
and not real : they perplex only superficial readers. Nor is there a sin- 
gle instance, which does not admit of a rational solution, by attending 
to the original languages, and to the manners, customs, &c, that ob- 
tained in the countries where scenes mentioned in the Scriptures were 
situated. 



Section III.— The Preservation of the Scriptures a Proof of their Truth and 
Divine Origin. 

To nothing, indeed, but the mighty power of God, can 
we ascribe their preservation, amid all the attempts made 
to annihilate them. 



Section TV. — The tendency of the Scriptures to promote the present and 
eternal Happiness of Mankind, constitutes another Proof of their Divine 
Inspiration. 

Were all men sincerely and cordially to believe the 
Bible to be a divine revelation, and to obey its precepts, 
how would the moral face of the world be changed ! 
Wherever it has been thus embraced, the most beneficial 
effect* have been the result. 



THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 



59 



I. The Writings of the earliest Professors of Christi- 
anity prove, that the first converts were reformed charac- 
ters. 

1. For testimonies from the New Testament, compare Rom. vi. 21, 22. 
1 Cor. vi. 9—11. 1 Pet. iv. 3, 4. 

2. The various Christian Apologists, who Were compelled to vindicate 
their character, bear ample testimony to their exemplary lives and con- 
versation. Among these, the attestations of Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, 
Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Origen, and Lactantius, are particularly wor- 
thy of notice. 

Though we cannot expect, from Pagans, direct testimonies to the vir- 
tues of men whom they persecuted ; yet the works of heathen writers in- 
cidently furnish proofs of their innocence and worth. Pliny, for instance, 
in his memorable letter to Trajan, says, that the great crime of the Chris- 
tians consisted, — not in the commission of any wickedness, but— in as- 
sembling together on a stated day before light, to sing hymns to Christ as 
God The apostate emperor Julian, also, in his epistle to an heathen 
pontiff, commended their charity and other virtues to the imitation of the 
pagans. If the Gospel were merely the contrivance of man, the virtues 
and holiness of the first Christians would be an inexplicable fact. 

II. A Summary of the beneficial effects of Christianity 

On SOCIETY IN GENERAL. 

The benevolent spirit of the Gospel has served as a bond of union be- 
tween independent nations, and has broken down the partition which se- 
parated Heathens and Jews ; has abated their prejudices, and has render- 
ed them more liberal towards each other. Further, it has checked pride 
and promoted humility and forgiveness ; has rendered its sincere profes- 
sors just and honest, and it has inspired them with firmness under perse- 
cution. 

The benign influence of the Gospel has descended into families, and 
abolished polygamy ; has diminished the pressure of private tyranny , 
has exalted and improved the female character; has improved every do- 
mestic endearment ; given tenderness to the parent, humanity to the 
master, respect to superiors, and to inferiors ease : numberless charitable 
institutions unknown to the heathen world, have sprung from Christi- 
anity. 

III. Beneficial Effects of Christianity on the political 
state of the World. 

A milder system of civil government, and a better administration of 
civil justice, have been introduced : the horrors of war have been miti- 
gated; and the measures of governments have been directed to their 
oroper objects. 

IV. Beneficial Effects of Christianity on Literature 
und the Fine Arts. 

Christianity has been the means of preserving and disseminating moral, 
classical, and theological knowledge in every nation where it has been 
established. The Law, the Gospel, the comments on them, and the works 
of the fathers, were written in Hebrew, Greek, or Latin, so that the know- 
ledge of these languages became necessary to every man, who wished 
to become an intelligent Christian. The Christian doctrines and precepts 
being contained in books, the use of letters became necessary to its teach 
ers ; and by them was learning preserved. Modern opposers of revelation 
ascribe all our improvements to philosophy : but it was religion, the rb- 
tioios of christ, thai took the lead. The reformers opened to us the Scrip- 



(JO INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 

tures, and broke all those fettera which shackled human reason. Philo- 
sophy crept humbly in her train, and now ungratefully claims all the 
honour and praise to herself. Luther, Melancthon, and Cranmer, preGed- 
ed Lord Bacon, Boyle, Newton, and Locke. 

Christianity is not to be charged with the crimes of those who have as 
sumed the name of Christians, while their conduct has shown that they 
were utterly destitute of every Christian sentiment. It is not peculiar to 
the Christian revelation, that it has sometimes furnished a pretext for in- 
troducing the very evils and oppressions which it was designed to remedy. 

The mischiefs, which, through the corrupt passions of men, have been 
the accidental consequences of Christianity, ought not to be imputed to 
its sp-irit. Nothing is better calculated to diffuse real comfort, peace, and 
happiness throughout the world : and a candid comparison of the morals 
of professing Christians throughout the world, with those of heathen na- 
tions in a similar stage of society, will demonstrate the beneficial effects 
of Christianity. 

V. Historical facts attest the benefits conferred by the 
Gospel on the world. 

Wherever Christian Missionaries have gone, the most barbarous heathen 
nations have become civilised. The ferocious have become mild ; those, 
who prowled about for plunder, have acquired settled property, as well 
as a relish for domestic happiness. Persons, who dwelt in caves or huts 
have learnt from missionaries the art of building ; they who fed on raw 
flesh have applied to agriculture ; men who were clothed in skins and 
were ignorant of manufactures, have become acquainted with the com- 
forts of apparel ; and the violent and rapacious have renounced their ra- 
pine and plunder. 

The ancient inhabitants of Germany, Hungary, Scythia, Denmark, 
Sweden, and the aboriginal inhabitants of Britain and Ireland, as well as 
the modern inabitants of North and South America, the East and West 
Indies, Greenland, South and West Africa, are all illustrious monuments 
of the blessed effects produced by Christianity. 

VI. The practical efficacy of Christianity, 

Especially when contrasted with the effects of infidelity, is seen more 
conspicuously and more satisfactorily in the holy, useful, and exemplary 
lives of real Christians in the private walks of life, and in the peculiar 
supports and consolations which they enjoy under adversity and afflic- 
tions, and in the prospect of futurity : while infidelity offers, and can 
offer, no ground or prospect of support to its unhappy professors. 



Section V.— The peculiar Advantages, possessed by the Christian Religion 
over all other Religions, a demonstrative Evidence of its Divine Origin 
and authority. 

It is the peculiar and distinguishing excellency of the 
Christian Religion, that it possesses advantages which no 
other religions pr revelations have : at the same time it 
has none of the defects by which they are characterised. 

No other religions are confirmed by ancient prophecies, 
or by the blood of an infinite number of sensible and in- 
telligent martyrs, who voluntarily suffered death in defence 
of what they had seen and believed. And although other 



THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 61 

religions may pretend to be confirmed by signs and re 
markable events, (as the Romans ascribed the success of 
their arms to their deities, and the Mohammedans consider 
the successes of their prophet as a proof of the divinity of 
his mission ;) yet h is not prosperity or adversity simply 
considered., but prosperity or adversity as foretold by God 
or his prophets, which is a certain character of true re 
ligion. 

Nor has the Christian Religion any of those defects, by 
which other religions are characterised. It is not design- 
ed for the satisfaction of the carnal and worldly appetites 
of men, as that of the Jews, who aspire after temporal 
prosperity and worldly pomp ; nor is it a medley like that 
of the ancient Samaritans, made up of a mixture of the 
Jewish and Pagan religions ; nor has it any of the faults 
or extravagant superstitions of the various religions of the 
heathen nations, ancient or modern. 

The superiority of the Christian Religion over every 
other is particularly evident in the following respects : 

I. In its Perfection. 

Other religions, as being principally of human invention and institu- 
tion, were formed, by degrees, from the different imaginations of several 
persons, who successfully made such additions or alterations as they 
thought convenient. But it is not so with the Christian Religion : which 
was wholly delivered by Christ, is entirely contained in each of the Gos- 
pels, and even in each epistle of the apostles. 

II. In its Openness. 

Other religions durst not show themselves openly, and therefore were 
veiled over with a mysterious silence, and an affected darkness. But the 
Christian Religion requires no veil to cover it, no mysterious silence, no 
dissimulation or disguise ; although it proposes to us such objects as are 
contrary to our prejudices and received opinions. 

III. In its Adaptation to the Capacities of all Men. 

In heathen countries, the philosophers always derided the religion of 
the vulgar; and the vulgar understood nothing of the religion of the phi- 
losophers. But the Christian Religion is alike suited to the learned and 
to the unlearned, having a divine efficacy ; and an agreeable power suit- 
able to all hearts ; and it is most wonderfully adapted to those habits and 
sentiments which spring up in proportion as knowledge and rennen^.-^nt 
advance. 

IV. In the Spirituality of its Worship. 

The heathen worship was corporeal and grossly sensual, both in its. 
object and in its rites. But the Christian Religion gives us for the ob ect 
of out worship,— not a God in human form,— but a God who is a Sp'b't, 
whom it teaches us to honour not with a carnal but with a spirilual w<>r- 
fillip. (John iv. 24.) 



62 INTERNAL EVIDENCE OF 

V. In its Opposition to the Spirit of the World. 

While all other religions induce men to seek after the pleasures and 
profits of the world, in the worship of God ; the Christian Religion makes 
us glorify God by renouncing the world, and teaches us that we must 
either glorify God, at the expense of worldly pleasures, or possess the ad- 
vantages of the w T orld with the loss of our religion. 

VI. In its Humiliation of man, and Exaltation of the 
Deity. 

All false religions debase the Deity and exalt man : but the Christian 
Religion debases man and exalts the Deity. 

VII. In its Restoration of Order to the world. 

The heathen religions degraded their deities to an equality with them- 
selves, and elevated four-footed beasts, fowls of the air, and creeping 
things, — yea, even their own vices and imperfections, to the rank of gods. 
But the Christian Religion alone restores that order which ought to be 
established in the world, by submitting every thing to the power of man, 
that he might submit himself to the will of God. 

VIII. In its Tendency to eradicate all evil passions 
from the heart. 

Other religions chiefly tend to flatter the corrupt desires and propensi- 
ties of men. But the Christian Religion tends to eradicate those desires 
and propensities from our hearts, and teaches us utterly to renounce 
them. 

IX. In its Contrariety to the covetousness and ambi- 
tion of mankind, and in its aversion to policy, and corrup- 
tion, all of which were promoted by other religions. 

X. In its Restoration of the Divine Image to Man. 

Other religions would have God to bear the image of weak and sinful 
man ; but the Christian Religion teaches us, that men ought to bear the 
image of God, which is a most powerful motive to holiness. 

XI. In its Mighty effects. 

False religions were the irregular, confused productions of the politest 
and ablest men of those times; whereas the Christian Religion is a won- 
derful composition, which seems to proceed only from the most simple 
and ignorant sort of people; and, at the same time, is such as evinces 
that it must have for its principle the God of holiness and love. 

To conclude this argument : — if we contrast the advan- 
tages, which infidelity and Christianity respectively afford 
to those who embrace them, we shall perceive the evident 
superiority of the latter. The deist is not happier, or 
more useful, in society, than the real Christian, nor can he 
look into futurity with more composure. But the latter is 
both happy in himself, and useful in his day, and he looks 
forward to futurity with humble and holy tranquillity. At 
least, he is as safe in his death as any of the children of 
men. The deist, on the contrary, by rejecting all moral 



THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES, (J3 

evidence, forfeits all things, and gains nothing ; while 
the Christian hazards nothing, and gains all things. 



Section VI.— Inability to answer all Objections, no just Cause for reject- 
ing the Scriptures. — Unbelievers in Divine Revelation more credulous 
than Christians. 

Even though all the difficulties which are alleged to exist 
in the Sacred Writings could not be accounted for, yet 
this would be no just or sufficient cause, why we should 
reject the Scriptures ; because objections are, for the most 
part, impertinent to the purpose for which they are ad- 
duced ; and if they were pertinent, yet, unless they could 
confute that evidence, they ought not to determine us 
against the Bible. If the various arguments by which 
our Religion appears to be true, cannot be disproved (and 
disproved they cannot be,) all the objections which can be 
conceived must proceed from some mistake ; and those 
arguments, together with the conclusions deduced from 
them, ought not to be rejected on account of the objec- 
tions, but such objections ought to be rejected on account 
of the arguments. There is no science without its diffi- 
culties, and it is not pretended that theology is without 
them. But difficulties can never alter the nature of 
things, and make that which is true to become false. 

To a considerate mind, all the objections which can be 
invented against the Scriptures, cannot seem nearly so 
great as that which arises from infidelity, from the suppo- 
sition that God should not at all reveal himself to man- 
kind ; or that the heathen oracles, or the Koran of Mo- 
hammed should be of divine revelation. 

Nothing is more frequent than the charge of superstition 
and credulity, which is brought by modern unbelievers 
against Christianity : and yet this charge attaches with no 
small force to the opposers of revelation. For it is much 
more easy to believe the facts recorded in the New Tes- 
tament, than to suppose them false, and believe the absurd 
consequences which must follow from such a supposition. 
It is much more credible that God should work a miracle 
for the establishment of a useful system of religion, than 
that the first Christians should act against every principle 
that is natural to man. 



64 RECAPITULATION. 

They, who will not be convinced by^ the present evi- 
dence of the truth and certainty of the Christian Reli- 
gion, would not be convinced by any other evidence 
whatever. 

No man of reason can pretend to say, but that God 
may require us to take notice of some things at our peril, 
to inquire into them, and to consider them thoroughly. 
And the pretence of want of greater evidence, which is 
sometimes made, will not excuse carelessness or unreason- 
able prejudices, when God has vouchsafed to us all that 
evidence, which was either fit for him to grant, or reason- 
able for men to desire, or of which the nature of the thing 
itself, that was to be proved, was capable. 



CHAPTER VI. 

RECAPITULATION. — MORAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE STUDY OF THE 
SCRIPTURES. 

I. Such are the principal proofs for the genuineness, 
authenticity, credibility, and inspiration of the Holy Scrip- 
tures : and taking the whole together, every candid in- 
quirer must be convinced that we have every possible evi- 
dence for their truth and divinity, which can be reasonably 
expected or desired. How absolutely necessary a reve- 
lation was, to make known to mankind the proper object 
of their worship, and to communicate to them a just rule 
of life, is manifest from the deplorable state of religion 
and morals in the Heathen world, both ancient and 
modern, 

II. The manner in which the sacred Scriptures have 
been transmitted to us, their language and style, together 
with the minute circumstantiality of the facts and doctrines 
recorded in them, added to the moral impossibility of im- 
posing forged writings upon mankind — are all indisputable 
proofs of their Genuineness and Authenticity. 

III. Equally satisfactory is the evidence Tor the Credi- 
bility of the writers. For they had a perfect knowledge 
of the subjects which they have related, and their moral 
character was never impeached by their keenest opponents : 
their accounts were published among the people, who wit- 



RECAPITULATION. (J5 

nessed the events which they had recorded, and who could 
easily have detected falsehood if any such there had been, 
but who did not attempt to question either the reality of 
those facts or the fidelity of the narrators ; there is an 
entire harmony between the , Sacred Writers and profane 
history, both natural and civil ; and the reality of the 
principal facts related in the Bible, is perpetuated and 
commemorated by monuments that subsist to this day in 
every country, where either Jews or Christians are to be 
found. 

IV. And that the Scriptures are not merely entitled to 
be received as credible, but also as containing the reveal- 
ed will of God, — in other words, that they are divinely 
fnspired, — we have evidence of various kinds amounting 
to moral demonstration : for, on the one hand, their sacred 
origin is evinced by the most illustrious external attesta- 
tions, viz. miracles and prophecy, which carry with them 
the most manifest proofs of a divine interposition ; and 
which it cannot reasonably be supposed that God would 
ever give, or permit to be given, to an imposture. And, 
on the other hand, the Scriptures have the most excellent 
internal characters of truth and goodness, in the sublimity, 
excellence, and sanctity of the system of doctrines and 
morals which they announce, — in the harmony and con- 
nexion that subsist between all the parts of which they 
consist, in the preservation of the Sacred Scriptures, and 
in their admirable tendency (which is shown by its effects 
wherever the Scriptures are cordially and sincerely be- 
lieved) to promote the glory of God and the good of man- 
kind, and the cause of virtue and righteousness in the 
world, and to prepare men, by a life of faith and holy 
obedience upon earth, for the eternal enjoyment of God 
in Heaven ; — together with the peculiar advantages pos- 
sessed by the Christian Religion over all other religions. 

On all these accounts the Holy Scriptures are thank- 
fully to be received and embraced, as the word of God, 
and as the rule of Christian faith and practice. " And till 
I can see the evidence of them disproved, or the religion 
of Christ demonstrated to be irrational and absurd, I am 
determined, by the grace of God, to hold fast my profes- 
sion to the end, seeking after the kingdom of glory by the 
practice of that righteousness which prepares for, and 



66 THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES: 

leads to it, in a firm dependence upon that comfortable 
declaration of Jesus Christ : That God so loved the world 
that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but 
have everlasting life."* 

Since the Holy Scriptures contain all things necessary 
to salvation, it becomes the indispensable duty of all, care 
fully and constantly to peruse these sacred oracles, that 
through them we may become perfect, thoroughly furnish- 
ed to every good work, (2 Tim. iii. 17.) This, indeed, is 
not only agreeable to the divine command — Search the 
Scriptures, (John v. 39,) and to the design of the Sacred 
Writings, but is further commended by the practice of the 
Church in every age, and by the divine promise to all true 
believers, that they shall all be taught of God, (Isa. 
liv. 13.) The circumstances of every individual must re- 
gulate the portion of time, that ought daily to be devoted 
to this important study ; which should be undertaken with 
devout simplicity and humility, and prosecuted with dili- 
gence and attention, with a willingness to resort to all 
necessary helps for advancement in the truth, and for 
security against error. To these qualifications, especially, 
should be added prayer for divine aid and teaching, toge- 
ther with a sincere desire to know and perform the will of 
God, and, laying aside all prejudice, to follow the Scrip- 
tures wherever conviction may lead our minds : for it is 
indubitable that persons of piety, who are anxiously desi- 
rous of the knowledge of divine truth, are aided by the 
Spirit of God, in searching out the meaning of Scripture, 
particularly in such subjects as have a special reference te 
faith and religious practice. 

• Bishop Watson's Tracts, vol. ill. p. 484. 



PART II. 



ON THE LITERARY HISTORY, CRITICISM, AND INTERPRETATION OP 
THE SCRIPTURES. 



BOOK I.— ON THE LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM OF THE 
SCRIPTURES. 



CHAPTER I. 

ON THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF SCRIPTURE 

Section I.— On the Hebrew Language, and the Samaritan Pentateu ei;. 

I. Antiquity of the Hebrew Language. — In this 
language the Old Testament is written, with the excep- 
tion of a few words and passages in the Chaldaean dia- 
lect, which occur in Jer. x. 11. Dan. ii. 4, to the end 
of vii. and Ezra iv. 8, to vi. 19, and vii. 12 — 17. It 
derived its name from the root *qy (aber) to pass 
over : whence Abraham was denominated the Hebrew, 
(Gen. xiv. 13,) having passed over the Euphrates, to 
come into the land of Canaan. The shortness of its words, 
the descriptive character of the names of places, of ani- 
mals, and of nations, as well as of the names given to 
heathen deities, (as Jove, which is deduced from Jehovah, 
Vulcan from Tubal-cain, &c.) together with the traces of 
Hebrew, which are to be found in the Chaldee, Syriac, 
Arabic, Persian, and other languages; — all combine to 
prove that Hebrew is the original of all the languages or 
dialects which have been spoken in the world. The know- 
ledge of this language was very widely diffused by means 
of the commercial connexions of the Phoenician mer- 
chants. 

The Hebrew language has had its several ages or de- 
grees of purity. Its golden age was the period from the 
time of Moses to that of David ; its silver age was the 
interval between the reigns of Solomon and Hezekiah, 
or Manasseh ; the iron age, between that period and the 



(58 ORIGINAL LANGUAGES 

70 years' captivity in Babylon : after which the Jews for 
a short time spoke a mixed dialect of Chaldee and He- 
brew, and ultimately lost it. The Priests and Levites, 
however, continued to cultivate it to the time of Christ, 
as a learned language, that they might be enabled to ex- 
pound the law and the prophets to the people ; which last 
period has been termed the leaden age. 

II. Antiquity of the Hebrew characters. — The twen- 
ty-two characters, now in use, are of a square form, and 
are generally ascribed to Ezra, who transcribed the an- 
cient characters of the Hebrews into the square characters 
of the Chaldaeans, since which time the Samaritan or an 
cient Hebrew character lias fallen into disuse. 

III. Origin of the Samaritans. — 

The Samaritans, mentioned in the New Testament, 
were descended from an intermixture of the ten tribes 
with the Gentile nations. This origin rendered them 
odious to the Jews, who refused to acknowledge them as 
Jewish citizens, or to permit them to assist in rebuilding 
the Temple, after their return from the Babylonish cap- 
tivity. In consequence of this rejection as well as of 
other causes of dissension, the Samaritans erected a tem- 
ple on Mount Gerizim, and instituted sacrifices according 
to the prescriptions of the Mosaic law. Hence arose that 
inveterate schism and enmity between the two nations, so 
frequently mentioned or alluded to in the New Testament. 
The Samaritans (who still exist but are greatly reduced in 
numbers) reject all the sacred books of the Jews except 
the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, of which they 
preserve copies in the ancient Hebrew characters : these 
agree in all material points with our present copies, which 
were those of the Jews, and thus prove that the important 
books of Moses have been transmitted to us uncorrupted, 
in any thing material. 

II. The few differences that actually exist between the 
Samaritan and Hebrew Pentateuchs, may be satisfactory 
accounted for by the usual sources of various readings, 
viz. the negligence of copyists, the confounding of similar 
letters, transposition of letters, <fcc. The Samaritan Pen- 
tateuch is of great importance in establishing correct read- 
ings. Two versions of it are extant. 

1. The Samaritan Version, made in the Aramaean dia- 



OF SCRIPTURE. £9 

iect (which is intermediate between the Chaldee and the 
Syriac languages,) by an unknown author in Samaritan 
characters before the schism took place between the Jews 
and Samaritans. It is close, and faithful to the original. 
2. An Arabic Version, in Samaritan Characters, which 
was made by Abu Said in A. D. 1070, to supplant the 
Arabic translation of the Jewish Rabbi, Saadia Gaon, 
which had till that time been in use among the Samari- 
tans. 



Section II, — On the Greek Language. 

I. The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament was 
executed in the Greek language ; and as every Jew, who 
read Greek at all, would read the Greek Bible, the style 
of this operated in forming the style of the Greek Testa- 
ment, to which, as well as to the Old Testament, the Sep- 
tuagint is an important source of interpretation. 

II. The New Testament was written in Greek, be- 
cause it was the language best understood both by writers 
and readers, being spoken and written, read, and under- 
stood throughout the Roman Empire. Its style is charac- 
terised by the prevalence of Hebrew phraseolog}', the 
language of the New Testament being formed by a 
mixture of oriental idioms and expressions, with those 
which are properly Greek. Hence it has been termed 
Hebraic Greek : and, from the circumstance of the Jews 
having acquired the Greek language rather by practice 
than by grammar from the Greeks, among whom they re- 
sided, it has also been termed the Hellenistic-Greek. A 
large proportion of the phrases and constructions of the 
New Testament, however, is pure Greek, that is, of the 
same degree of purity as the Greek spoken in Macedonia, 
and that in which Polybius wrote his Roman History : 
whence the language of the New Testament will derive 
considerable illustration from consulting the works of clas- 
sic authors, and particularly from the Septuagint Version 
of the Old Testament. 

III. The popular Greek dialect was not spoken and 
written by the Jews, without some intermixtures of a 
foreign kind : in particular, they intermixed many idioms 



70 ORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF SCRIPTURE. 

and the general complexion of their vernacular language;. 
These peculiar idioms are termed Hebraisms ; and their 
nature and classes have been treated at considerable 
length by various writers. A few examples will suffice to 
show the nature of these Hebraisms. Thus : 

1. To be called, to arise, and to be found, are the same as to be. See 
Isa. lxi. 3. Matt. v. 9. 1 John iii. 1. Esth. iv. 14. Luke xxiv. 38. 
Dan. v. 12. Luke xvii. 18. 

2. Verbs, expressive of a person's doing an action, are often used to sig- 
nify his supposing the thing or discovering and acknowledging the fact, 
or his declaring and foretelling the event. Matt. x. 39. 1 Cor. iii. 18. 
lea. vi. 9, 10. Acts x. 1.5. 

3. Negative verbs are often put for a strong positive affirmation. Psal. 
lxxxiv. 11. Rom. dv. 19. John xiv. 8. 

4. The privileges of the first born among the Jews being very great, the 
chief or most eminent thing of any kind is called the first born. Job. 
xviii. 13. The first born of death is the most fatal and cruel death. 

5. The words sow, and children, have various peculiar significations: 
as, Sons of Belial, wicked men; Children of disobedience (Eph. ii.) are 
disobedient persons, &e. 

6. Name is frequently synonymous with Persons. John i. 12. iii. 18. 
Rev. iii. 4. 

7. The Jews, having but few adjectives and no superlatives, in their 
language, had recour-se to substantives to supply their place. Thus king- 
dom and glory denote a. glorious kingdom, 1. Thess. ii. 12; glory of his 
power, denotes glorious power. 2. Thess. i. 9 ; Mountains of God are 
exceeding high mountains, Psal. xxxvi. 7, &c. 

8. According to the Hebrew idiom, a sword has a mouth; or, the edge 
of a sword is called a mouth. Luke xxi. 24. Heb. xi. 34. 

9. The verb to knaio frequently denotes to approve; as in Psal. i. 6. 
Matt. vii. 23. 

10. To hear denotes to understand, to attend to, and to regard what is 
said, Deut. xviii. 1 5, with Acts iii. 23. Matt. xvii. 5. Luke viii. 8. 

Besides these Hebraisms there are found in the New 
Testament various Syriac, Chaldee, Latin, and other idi- 
oms and words, which are respectively denominated Syri- 
asms, Persisms, Latinisms, &c &c. 

1. Syriasms are the idioms peculiar to the Syriac or West- Aramaean 
dialect ; and Chaldaisms are those peculiar to the Chaldee or East-Ara- 
maean dialect. Instances of these idioms occur in Rom. viii. 15. Matt, 
xxvii. 46. Mark v. 41. vii. 34. 

2. Latinisms are those Latin words and phrases, which occur in the 
New Testament, in consequence of the intercourse of the Jews with the 
Romans, after Judaea had been reduced into a Roman province. See 
Matt. x. 29. John ii. 15. Acts. vi. 9, &c. 

3. The number of words used by St. Paul in peculiar senses, as well as 
words not ordinarily occurring in Greek writers, are considered to be 
provincial idioms at that time used in Cilicia : whence they have been 
termed Cilicisms. 



ON THE MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE. 



71 



CHAPTER II. 



THE MANUSCRIUTS OF THE BIBLE. 




Form of a Synagogue Roll of the Pentateuch. 



ftECTioN I.— On the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Old Testament 

I. Hebrew Manuscripts are divided into two classes, 
viz. autographs, or those actually written by the inspired 
penmen, and apographs, or copies made from the origi- 
nals, and multiplied by repeated transcription. The ma- 
nuscripts still extant are of two descriptions ; viz. 

1. The Rolled Manuscripts used in the synagogues, 
which are transcribed with great care, and under various 
minute regulations designed to secure the purity of the 
sacred text. The form of one of these rolled manuscripts 
(from the original among the Harleian MSS. in the Bri- 
tish Museum, No. 7619,) is given in the vignette at the 
head of this section. It is a large double roll, containing 
the Hebrew Pentateuch ; written with very great care on 
forty brown African skins. These skins are of different 
breadths, some containing more columns than others. 
The columns are one hundred and fifty-three in number, 
each of which contains about sixty-three lines, is about 
twenty-two inches deep, and generally more than five 
inches broad. The letters have no points, apices, or 
flourishes about them. The initial words are not larger 



72 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS 

than the rest ; and a space equal to about four lines, is 
left between every two books. Altogether, this is one of 
the finest specimens of the synagogue-rolls that has been 
preserved to the present time. 

2. The Square Manuscripts, which are in private use 
among the Jews, are written, after the manner of our 
printed books, on vellum, parchment, or paper of various 
sizes. 

II. Among the Jews, five exemplars, or standard copies, 
have been particularly celebrated for their correctness ; 
and from them all subsequent copies have been made. 
These are, 

1. The Codex of Hillel, a manuscript seen by Rabbi 
Kimchi, in the 12th century, at Toledo. 

2, 3. The Codices of Aaron Ben Asher, President of 
the Jewish Academy at Tiberias, and of Jacob Ben 
Naphtali, President of -the Jewish Academy at Babylon ; 
who, in the eleventh century, respectively collated the 
Manuscripts of the Oriental and Occidental Jews. 

4, 5. The Codex of Jericho and the Codex of Sinai are 
both in high repute for their correctness. Of the Codex 
Sanbouki nothing certain is known. 

III. Various criteria,* furnished by external testimony 
as well as by internal marks, have been laid down by 
learned men, for ascertaining the age of Hebrew Manu- 
scripts : but these criteria have been questioned by other 
distinguished critics, who have advanced strong reasons to 
prove that they are uncertain guides in determining the 
age of manuscripts. 

IV. The order in which the Sacred Books are arran- 
ged varies in different manuscripts. Few of those which 
have been preserved contain the Old Testament entire ; 
the greater part, indeed, comprise only particular portions 
of it ; and many have become mutilated by the consu- 
ming hand of time. 

V. As the Hebrew Manuscripts, which have been in 
use since ihe 11th century, have all been corrected after 
some particular recension or edition, they have, from this 
circumstance, been classed into three or four families, 
according to the country where such recension has obtain- 
ed : viz. 



OB' THE BIBLE. 73 

1. The Spanish Manuscripts, which were corrected 
after the Codex of Hillel, follow the Masoretic System 
with great accuracy. They are beautifully written, and 
highly valued by the Jews, though some critics hold them 
in little estimation. 

2. The Oriental Manuscripts are nearly the same as 
the Spanish MSS., and may be referred to the same 
class. 

3. The German Manuscripts are less elegantly written 
than the Spanish MSS. They do not follow the Masore- 
tic Notation, and frequently exhibit important various 
readings, that are not to be found in the Spanish MSS. 
This class, though little esteemed by the Jews, is highly 
valued by Biblical critics. 

4. The Italian Manuscripts hold a middle place, both 
in execution and critical value, between the Spanish and 
German MSS. 

VI. The total number of manuscripts collated by Dr. 
Kennicott, for his edition of the Hebrew Bible, is about 
630 : the total number collated by M. De Rossi, for his 
Collection of Various Readings, is 479 MSS., besides 288 
printed editions. 

Almost all the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Old Testa- 
ment, at present known to be extant, were written be- 
tween the years 1000 and 1457 ; whence Dr. Kennicott 
infers that all the MSS. written before the years 700 or 
800 were destroyed by some decree of the Jewish senate, 
on account of their numerous differences from the copies 
then declared genuine. 

VII. Among the valuable biblical manuscripts brought 
from India, by the late Rev. Dr. Claudius Buchanan, and 
now deposited in the University Library, at Cambridge, 
there is a roll of the Pentateuch, which he procured from 
the black Jews in Malabar, who (there is every reason to 
believe) are descended from the remains of the first dis- 
persion of that nation by Nebuchadnezzar. The date Of 
this MS. cannot be ascertained ; but it is supposed to be 
derived from those copies which their ancestors brought 
with them into India. It agrees in all material points with 
our common printed Hebrew text, and affords an addition- 
al argument for the integrity of the Pentateuch. 



74 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS 

Section II.— Account of Gieek Manuscripts containing the Old and New 

Testaments. 

I. Materials of Greek Manuscripts. — These are two- 
fold : viz. 1. Vellum, of various thickness, which is either 
purple-coloured, or of its natural hue ; and, 2. Paper, 
made of cotton or linen. MSS. on paper are of much 
later date than those on vellum. 

II. Form of Letters. — The letters are either capital, 
which in the time of Jerome were called uncial, i. e. initial, 
or cursive, that is, small. Greek MSS. were written in 
capital letters till the seventh century ; and a few so late- 
ly even as the ninth century : but the small letters were 
generally adopted towards the close of the tenth century. 
The most ancient MSS. were written without accents, 
spirits, or indeed any separations of the words, until the 
ninth century. 

III. Numerous abbreviations exist in the earliest 
MSS. They are made by putting together the first and 
last letters, and sometimes also the middle letter : thus 
KC (KS) for Kvpios (kmHos) Lord,EHP (ser) for £ wr ^ (soten,) 
Saviour, &c. 

In the author's larger work, facsimile specimens are 
given of some of the more ancient MSS. which could not 
be reduced within the size of this page, so as to convey 
an accurate idea of them : but the following literal ren- 
dering of Matt. v. 1 — 3., according to the Codex Bezae, or 
Cambridge MSS. of the Four Gospels and Acts, (which is 
described in p. 78, infra,) will convey to the English 
reader some idea of the manner in which manuscripts 
were anciently written and printed : — 

Matt. v. 1—3 
andseeingthemultittjdes"hewentupintoamountain 
andwhenhewassetdown'cametohim 
hisdisciples'andopeninghismouth 
hetacghtthemsaying 

* 

blessed^irjsthepoorinspt'fortheirsis 
thek1ngdomofheaven. 

SPT is contracted for sptn'T : the original Greek is 1INI (pni) for 
ILNEYMATI (PNeumart.) 



OF THE BIBLE. 75 

Very few MSS. contain the whole either of the Old or 
the New Testament ; and almost all the more ancient 
manuscripts are imperfect. 

Corrections and erasures occur in all MSS. Such cor- 
rections as were made a primd manu, that is, by the copy- 
ist of a manuscript, are preferable to those made dsecundd 
manu, that is, by later hands. Erasures were made, either 
by drawing a line through a word, or with the penknife, 
or sometimes the old writing was obliterated with a sponge, 
and other words — treatises indeed — were written in lieu of 
it. Manuscripts thus re-written are termed Codices Pal- 
impsesti, or Rescript! : many of them are of considerable 
antiquity. They may be easily known, as it rarely hap- 
pens that the former writing is so completely erased, as 
not to exhibit some traces. In a few instances both wri- 
tings are legible. 

IV. Account of Greek Manuscripts, containing the 
Old and New Testaments. 

No existing MSS. of the New Testament can be traced 
higher than the fourth century ; and most of them are 
still later. Some contain the whole New Testament ; 
others comprise particular books or fragments of books, 
and several contain only detached portions or lessons ap- 
pointed to be read in the public service of the Church. 
Some are accompanied with a version, either interlined 
or in a parallel column. These are called Codices Be- 
Ungues: the greatest number of them is in Greek and 
Latin ; and the Latin version is in general one of those 
which existed before the time of Jerome.^ 

1. The Codex Alexandrinus, or Alexandrian Manu- 
script, is one of the most precious relics of Christian anti- 
quity. It consists of four folio volumes: the three first 
containing the Old Testament and Apocryphal Books ; 
the fourth comprising the New Testament, together with 
the first epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, the apocry- 
phal psalms ascribed to Solomon, and some liturgical 
hymns. Athanasius's Epistle to Marcellus precedes the 

• As the author found it impracticable to abridge the numerous bibliogra- 
phical accounts of MSS., which are given in his larger Introduction to the 
Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, so as to convey a 
full idea of their various contents, he has been obliged to confine the analy- 
sis contained in this section, to a notice of the three most important manu- 
scripts ; viz the Alexandrian, Vatican, and Cambridge, MSS. 



76 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS 

Psalms, to which last are annexed the arguments of Euse- 
bius, as his canons are, to the Gospels. In the New Tes* 
tament there is wanting the beginning as far as Matt. xxv. 
6 ; likewise, from John vi. 50, to viii. 52 ; and from 2 Cor. 
iv. 13, to xii. 7. This MS. was procured at Alexandria, 
by Cyrillus Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, by whom 
it was sent as a present to King Charles I., in the year 
1628. Since the year 1752, it has been deposited in the 
British Museum. It was most probably written between 
the middle and end of the fourth century : and tradition 
attributes the transcribing of it to one Thecla, amartyress, 
of whom nothing certain can now be known. It is written 
in uncial or capital letters. A fac-simile of the new Tes- 
tament was published in 1786, in folio, by Dr. Woide, 
Assistant Librarian at the British Museum ; and a fac- 
simile edition of the Old Testament is now in progress, 
under the editorial care of the Rev. H. H. Baber, keeper 
of the printed books in that noble library. The following 
passage, rendered rather more literally than the idiom of 
our language will admit, will enable the reader to form a 
correct idea of the manner in which the original Greek is 
written 

John 1—14. 

INTHEBEGINNINGWASTHEWORDANDTHEWORDWAS 

WITHGOD'ANDGCODWASTHEWORD* 

HEWASINTHEBEGINN1NGWITHGOD 

ALLWEREMADEBYHIMANDWITH 

OUTHIMWASMADENOTONE THING 

THATWASMADEINHIMLIFEWAS 

ANDTHELIFEWASTHELIGHTOFMEN 

ANDTHELIGHTINDARKNESSSHIN 

ETHANDTHEDARKNESSDIDNOTITCOMPRE 

HEND* THEREWASAMANSE 

^"TFROMGODWHOSENAME WAS 

JOHN-THISPjE-RSOiyCAME 

ASAWITNESSTHATHEMIGHTTESTI 

FYCONCERNINGTHEL1GHTTHATA 

LLMrGHTBELIEVETHROUGHHIM. 

2. The Codex Vaticanus, or Vatican Manuscript, 
which is preserved in the Vatican Library at Rome, is 



OF THE BIBLE. 77 

also written on vellum in uncial characters, and most 
probably before the close of the fifth century, though some 
critics assign to it an earlier, and others a later date. It 
wants, in the Old Testament, from Gen. i. to xlvi. and 
from Psalm cv. to cxxxvii. inclusive ; and in the New 
Testament, from Hebrews, ch. ix. 14, to the end of that 
epistle, as well as St. Paul's other epistles to Timothy, 
Titus, and Philemon, and the entire book of the Revela- 
tions. This last book, however, has been added, as well 
as the latter part of the epistle to the Hebrews, by a mo- 
dern hand in the fifteenth century. In many places, the 
faded letters have been retouched by a modern but care- 
ful hand. Various defects, both in orthography and lan- 
guage, indicate that this MS. was written by an Egyptian 
copyist. 

The following literal English version of the prophecy 
of Ezekiel, cb. i. ver. 1 — 3 ; will enable the reader to form 
a similarly correct idea of the manner in which the Codex 
Vaticanus was executed 

IEZEKIEL. 

+ + + 

"?X"T]N0WITCAMET0PASSINTHETHIR 



r*i 



INTHE 

TIETHYEARFOURTH 

MONTHONTHEFIFTHOFTHEMONTH 

WHENIWASINTHEMIDST 

OFTHECAPTIVESBV THE 

RIVERCHOBARAND 

THEHEAVENSWEREOFENED 

ANDISAWTHEVISIONSOFGDONTHKFI 

FTHOFTHEMONTHTHIS 

WASTHEFIFTHYEAROFTHE 

CAPTIVITYOFTHEKI 

NGJOACHIM ANDCA 

METHEWORDOFTHELDTOE 

ZEKIELTHESONOFBUZITHE 

PRIESTINTHELANDOFTilECHALDEESB 

YTHERIVERCHO 

BARANDU PONME W AS 

THEHANDOFTHELDANDILOOKEDANDLO 

AWHIRLWNDCAMEOOTOF 

THENORTHANDAGREATCLOUD 

WITHIT 



This manuscript has been repeatedly collated by vari- 
ous critics : the Roman edition of the Septuagint, pub- 



7$ DIVISIONS AND MARKS OF DISTINCTION 

lished in 1587, professes to exhibit the text of this manu- 
script, of which no fac-simile edition has ever been printed, 
3. The Codex Cantabrigiensis was presented to the 
University of Cambridge by Theodore Beza, in 1531, 
after whom it is most commonly called the Codex Bezce. 
It is a Greek-Latin manuscript ; concerning its date, 
critics greatly differ ; but it may most probably be re- 
ferred to the fifth or sixth century. It contains the four 
Gospels and Acts of the Apostles : sixty-six leaves of it 
are much torn and mutilated, and ten have been supplied by 
a later transcriber. Notwithstanding its acknowledged 
antiquity, this MS. is deemed of comparatively little value, 
in consequence of the Greek text having been altered 
and readings introduced from some Latin version, which 
were warranted by no Greek manuscript. An elegant 
fac-simile edition of it was printed at the expense of the 
university of Cambridge, under the editorial care of the 
Rev. Dr. Kipling, in 2 vols, folio, 1793. 



CHAPTER III. 

ON THE DIVISIONS AND MARKS OP DISTINCTION OCCURRING IN MANUSCRIPTS 
AND PRINTED EDITIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

Section I. — Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in the Old 
Testament. 

I. Different Appellations given to the Scriptures. 
The collection of writings, which is regarded by Chris- 
tians as the rule of their faith and practice, has been va- 
riously termed, — the Scriptures, as being the most im- 
portant of all Writings; — the Holy or Sacred Scrip- 
tures, because they were composed by divinely inspired 
persons ; — the Canonical Scriptures, either because they 
are the rule of our faith and practice, or to distinguish 
them from apocryphal writings, (those of uncertain au- 
thority and of human origin ;) — and, most frequently, the 
Bible, that is, The Book, by way of eminence, as being 
the Book of Books, infinitely superior to every unassisted 
production of the human mind. 

II. The Canonical Books are usually divided into two 
parts : 1 The Old Testament, containing the revelations 



OCCURRING LN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 79 

of the divine will before the Birth of Christ ; and 2. The 
New Testament, which comprises the inspired writings of 
the Evangelists and Apostles. 

III. The Old Testament was divided into three portions 
or classes ; viz. : 

1. The Law, including the Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses. 

2. The Prophets, containing the Books of Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 
Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings: these were termed the Former Prophets; 
and also the prophetical Books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve 
minor Prophets, who were called the Latter Prophets, with reference to 
the time when they flourished. 

3. The Cetubim, or Hagiographa, that is, the Holy Writings, so called 
because the Jews affirm that they were written by holy men divinely in- 
6pired, but who had no public mission as prophets. This division com- 
prehended the Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamenta- 
tions of Jeremiah, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel. Ezra, and Nehemiah, and 
the two Books of Chronicles. 

The Pentateuch is divided into fifty or fifty-four Para- 
schiothj or larger sections, according as the Jewish year is 
simple or intercalary, one of which is read in the syna- 
gogues every Sabbath day : and these Paraschioth are fur- 
ther subdivided into smaller sections termed Siderim, or 
orders. The reading of the law being prohibited during the 
persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, the Jews substituted 
for it fifty-four Haphtoroth or sections from the prophets, 
which are further divided into pesukim or verses. After 
the restoration of the reading of the law, by the Macca- 
bees, the section which had before been read from the law 
was used for the first, and that from the prophets for the 
second lesson. 

IV. Origin and rise of the Masora. — The sacred text 
was, originally, written without any divisions into chapters 
or verses, or even into words. In the lapse of ages, va- 
rious readings having arisen in consequence of successive 
transcriptions, the Jews had recourse to a canon, which 
they judged to be infallible, in order to fix the reading of 
the Hebrew text. This rule they called Masora, or Tra- 
dition, pretending that it was at first given by God to 
Moses, on Mount Sinai, when he taught him, first, its true 
reading, and, secondly, its true interpretation. The 
former is the subject of the Masora, the latter (or true 
interpretation) is that of the Misna, or Collection of Jew- 
ish Traditions and Expositions of Scripture Texts, and 
of the Gemara, or Commentary thereon. 

The Masoretic criticisms relate to the divisions of the 



g() DIVISIONS ETC.. IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

books and sections of books, the number of verses, the 
notation of omissions, alterations, repetitions of words 
and verses, and other minutiae. To this system also be- 
long the marginal corrections found in Hebrew MSS. and 
printed editions of the Old Testament, termed Ketib, that 
is, written, and Keri, that is, read ox readings as if to in- 
timate, " write in this manner," but " read in that man- 
ner ;" for instance, instead of the sacred name Jehovah, 
the Jews substitute Adonai or Elohim. Learned men are 
greatly divided in sentiment concerning the date of the 
Masora ; but the most probable opinion is that which re- 
fers i'ts commencement to the sixth century, when it was 
invented by the learned Jews of Tiberias, and continued 
at different times by various authors. Their chief design 
in this undertaking, appears to have been the establishment 
or preservation of the Hebrew text, without variations. 

V. The Old Testament is now divided into four parts ; 
viz.: 

1. The Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses. 

2. The Historical Books, comprising Joshua to Esther, inclusive. 

3. The Doctrinal or Poetical Books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesias- 
tes, and the Song of Solomon; and 

4. The Prophetical Books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, with his Lamentations, 
Ezekiel, Daniel, and the twelve Minor Prophets. 

These are severally divided into chapters ana verses. 
The former were invented by Cardinal Hugo de Sancto 
Caro, about the middle of the thirteenth century : who, 
having projected a concordance to the Latin Vulgate 
translation, divided the Old and New Testaments into 
chapters, which are the same we now have. These, again, 
he subdivided into smaller sections, distinguished by the 
letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. The facility of refer- 
ence, afforded by these subdivisions, suggested the idea of 
a Hebrew concordance, upon the same plan, to Rabbi Mor- 
decai Nathan, a celebrated Jewish teacher in the fifteenth 
century, who retained the divisions of chapters, but sub- 
stituted numeral figures for the Cardinal's marginal let- 
ters. The introduction of verses into the Hebrew Bible 
was first made, in 1661, by Athias, a Jewish printer at 
Amsterdam : and from him the division of verses has been 
adopted in all copies of the Bible in other languages. 



DIVISIONS, ETC., IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. gj 



Section II.— On the Divisions and Mams of Distinction occurring in the 
New Testament. 

I. Ancient Divisions. — Before the fourth century the 
New Testament was divided into longer chapters, called 
tit\oi (titloi,) and others which were shorter called Ks<j>a\tua 
(kephalaia,) or heads, and also breves. The most ce- 
lebrated division of the four Gospels into chapters was 
that of Ammonius, a learned Christian of Alexandria, in 
the third century, from whom they have been termed the 
Ammonian Sections. The Acts of the Apostles and the 
Catholic Epistles were similarly divided by Euthalius, an 
Egyptian Bishop, in the fifth century, after whom these 
divisions have been called the Euthalian Sections. Saint 
Paul's Epistles were divided in like manner, by some un- 
known author, in the fourth century. These divisions 
were superseded by Cardinal Hugo's chapters, in the 
thirteenth century. 

II. Punctuation and Division of Verses. — Euthalius, 
who has just been mentioned, was the in venter of the di- 
vision of the New Testament into p%oi (stichoi,) or lines 
regulated by the sense ; so that each terminated where 
some pause was to be made in reading. The introduction 
of points or stops, to mark the sense, is a gradual improve- 
ment, commenced by Jerome in the fourth century, and 
continued and improved by succeeding critics. The verses 
at present found in the New Testament were invented (in 
imitation of those contrived by Rabbi Nathan) by Robert 
Stephens, a learned printer, who first introduced them into 
his edition of the New Testament published in 1551. 

III. The Inscriptions, or Titles, prefixed to the vari- 
ous books of the New Testament, are of great antiquity 
They were added, in order to distinguish one book from 
another, after the canon of the New Testament was form- 
ed, but the author of them' is not known. 

IV. But the Subscriptions annexed to the epistles are 
manifestly spurious, for some of them contradict both 
chronology and history. For instance, according to the 
subscriptions to 1 and 2 Thessalonians, those epistles 
were written at Athens, whereas they were written at 
Corinth. The subscription to 1 Corinthians states that it 
was written at Philippi ; notwithstanding it appears from 



g2 ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS 

xvi. 8, and 19, that the apostle was at that very time ia 
Asia. The subscription to the epistle to the Galatians 
purports that epistle to have been written from Rome ; 
whereas Saint Paul did not go to Rome until ten years 
after the conversion of the Galatians. And the sub- 
scription to the first epistle to Timothy evidently was not, 
and indeed could not have been, written by the apostle 
Paul: for it states that epistle to have been written from 
Phrygia Pacatiana ; whereas the country of Phrygia was 
not divided into the two provinces of Phrygia Pacatia- 
7>a, or Prima, and Phrygia Secunda, until the fourth 
century. The author of these subscriptions, it is evident 
was either grossly ignorant, or grossly inattentive. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS OP THE SCRIPTURES. 

To those who possess ability, means, and leisure of con- 
sulting them, the Ancient Versions of the Old Testament 
are a very important source of criticism and interpretation 
of the sacred writing ; the value of them, however, varies 
according to the age and country of their respective au- 
thors, the purity of the text whence these versions were 
made, and the ability and fidelity of the translators. 



Section I.— Of the Targums, or Chaldee Paraphrases. 

Targum is a Chaldee word, signifying generally any 
version or explanation ; but this appellation is particularly 
restricted to the versions or paraphrases of the Old Testa- 
ment, which have been composed in the Chaldee Dialect. 
Ten of these expositions have been preserved to our 
times : viz. 

I. The Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, or five 
books of Moses, was composed by a learned Jewish rabbi 
of the same name, who is supposed to have been contem- 
porary with our Saviour. It is preferred to every other, 
on account of the purity of its style, and its general free- 
dom from idle legends. 



OF THE SCRIPTURES. 83 

II. The Targum of the Pseudo-Jonathan, so called 
from being erroneously ascribed to Jonathan Ben Uzziel, 
is a more liberal paraphrase of the Pentateuch than the 
preceding", but abounds with the most idle Jewish legends. 
From internal evidence, learned men concur in referring 
its date to the seventh or eight century of the Christian 
JEra. 

III. The Jerusalem Targum, also on the five books of 
Moses, in many respects agrees with that of the Pseudo- 
Jonathan, in the impurity of its style, legendary tales, <fcc. 
It was most probably written in the eighth or ninth century. 

IV. The Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, on the Pro- 
phets (that is according to the Jewish Division of the sacred 
books mentioned in p. 79,) is held in the highest estima- 
tion. Its date cannot be exactly ascertained ; some learn- 
ed men making it nearly coeval with the time of Christ, 
while others place it three or four hundred years later. 

V. The barbarous, and in many places, obscure Targum 
on the Cetubim, or Holy Writings, though ascribed to 
Eabbi Joseph, surnamed the Blind, in the third century, 
is evidently a compilation of much later date. 

VI. The Targum on the Megilloth, or five books of 
Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations of Jeremiah, 
Ruth, and Esther, could not be written before the sixth 
century. It is of very little value. The same remark is 
applicable to 

VII — IX. Three Targums on The Book of Esther ; 
and X. a Targum on The Books of Chronicles ; all of 
which are of very recent date. 

XI. Of all these Chaldee Paraphrases, the Targums of 
Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel are held in the highest 
estimation by the Jews ; but it is in establishing the 
genuine meaning of particular prophecies relative to the 
Messiah, in opposition to the false explications of the Jews 
and the erroneous expositions of Anti-Trinitarians, that 
these paraphrases are pre-eminently useful. 



Section II.— Ancient Greek Versions of the Old Testament. 

I. Among the Greek Versions of the Old Testament, 
the most ancient and valuable is that usually designated 



84 ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS OF 

the Septuagint, from the tradition (now generally reject- 
ed) of one Aristeas, who related that it was made in seven- 
ty-two days, and by seventy learned Jews, who had been 
sent by the Jewish High Priest Eleazar to Alexandria, at 
the request of Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt. It 
is, however, most probable, that this version was really 
executed during the join! reigns of Ptolemy Lagus, and 
his son Philadelphus, and about 285 or 2S6 years before 
the Christian iEra. 

II. The introduction of Coptic, or pure Egyptian words, 
and the rendering of Hebrew ideas in the Egyptian man- 
ner, clearly prove that the translators were natives of 
Egypt ; as the difference of style and various ability, with 
which particular books have been rendered into Greek, 
evince this version to have been the work, not of one, 
but of several individuals. 

III. The Septuagint Version, though originally made 
for the use of the Egyptian Jews, gradually acquired the 
highest authority among the Jews of Palestine, who were 
acquainted with the Greek language, and subsequently 
also among Christians. It retained its authority, even 
with the rulers of the Jewish Synagogue, until the com- 
mencement of the first century after Christ ; when the 
Jews being unable to resist the arguments from prophecy 
which were urged against them by Christians, in order 
to deprive these of the benefit of that authority, began to 
deny that it agreed with the Hebrew Text, and, ultimate- 
ly abandoning it they adopted the Greek Version of Aquila, 
which is noticed in p. S6, infra. 

IV. Numerous errors having in the lapse >f ages crept 
into the Septuagint, by the inaccuracy of transcribers and 
other circumstances, Origen, a learned Christian Father, 
in the early part of the third century, undertook the labo- 
rious task of collating the Greek Text then in use, with 
the original Hebrew, and with other Greek Translations 
then extant, and from the whole to produce a new recen- 
sion orrevisal. Twenty-eight years were devoted to this 
frreat critical work, which ancient writer* have variously 



termed the Tetrapla, Hexapla, Octapla, and Enneapla. 
Tetrapla contained the four Greek Versions of Aquila, 
Svmmachus, the Septuagint, and Theodotion : when he 
subsequently added, in two columns, the Hebrew Text, in 



OF THE SGBIPTtrjUES. £5 

Us original characters, and also in Greek characters, the 
six columns formed the Hexapla. The addition of two 
other Greek Versions of some parts of the Scriptures, in 
particular places, composed the Octapla ; and a separate 
translation of the Psalms being afterwards subjoined, the 
entire work has by some been termed the Enneapla It 
is, however, most probable, that Origen edited only the 
Tetrapla and the Hexapla. As Origen's object was to 
correct the differences found in the existing copies of the 
Old Testament, he carefully noted the alterations made 
by him, with peculiar marks. Fifty years after his death, 
this great work was discovered in an obscure corner of 
the city of Tyre, by Eusebius and Pamphilus, by whom 
it was deposited in the Library of Pamphilus the Martyr, 
where Jerome saw it about the middle of the fourth centu- 
ry. It is supposed to have perished on the capture of that 
city by the Arabs, A. D. 653. A few fragments, retrieved 
from MSS. of the Septuagint and the writings of the Fa- 
thers, are all that remain of this noble undertaking in be- 
half of sacred literature. 

V. The Septuagint continuing to be read in most of 
the Greek churches, the text, as corrected by Origen, 
was transcribed for their use together with his critical 
marks. In progress of time, from the introduction of nu- 
merous errors by copyists, a new revision became neces- 
sary : and as all the oriental churches did not receive 
Origen's labours with equal deference, three principal 
recensions were undertaken nearly at the same time, viz : 

1. The edition, undertaken by Eusebius and Pamphi- 
lus, about A. D. 300, from the Hexaplar Text, with the 
whole of Origen's critical marks : by repeated transcrip- 
tions these marks soon became changed, and were finally 
omitted. 

2. The recension of the Vulgate, or common Greek 
Text, by Lucian, a presbyter of the Church at Antioch, 
who suffered martyrdom A. D. 311. He took the He- 
brew Text for the basis of his edition, which was received 
in all the eastern churches from Constantinople to Anti- 
och. Contemporary with Lucian was 

3. Hesychius, an Egyptian Bishop, who undertook 
a similar revision, which was generally adopted in the 
churches of Egypt. 



gg ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS 

All MSS. and printed editions of the Septuagint, now 
extant, are derived from these three recensions. The 
Septuagint Version is of great importance, in a critical 
point of view, not only for correcting the Hebrew text, 
but also for ascertaining the meaning of particular idio- 
matic expressions and passages in the New Testament. 

VI. It remains to notice, briefly, some other ancient 
Greek Translations, which have been incidentally men- 
tioned. 

1. The Version of Aqtjila, a native of Sinope, in Pon- 
tus, was executed about the year 160. He was of Jew- 
ish descent, and had apostatised from the Christian faith 
to Judaism. His version, which is very literal, was un- 
dertaken to gratify the Jews. Nearly contemporary with 
him was 

2. Theodotion, an Ebionite, or semi-christian : his 
version is a kind of revision of the Septuagint ; it holds 
a middle place between the servile closeness of Aquila 
and the freedom of 4. Symmachus, who lived about the 
year 200, and was also an Ebionite. 

4 — 6. The three anonymous translations, usually 
called the fifth, sixth, and seventh versions, derive their 
names from the order in which Origen disposed them in 
his columns. Their authors are not known. 



Section III.— Ancient Oriental Versions of the Old and New Testaments. 

I. Syriac Versions. — Christianity being very early 
preached in Syria, several versions of the Scriptures were 
made into the language of that country. 

1. The most celebrated of these is the Peschito, (that 
is, right, literal, or exact,) also called the Versio Simplex, 
on account of its close adherence to the original sacred 
text. It was made early in the second, if not at the close 
of the first century : and, from some internal evidences 
furnished by the style, it is supposed to have been the 
work of several authors. The second epistle of Peter, 
the second and third epistles of John, and the epistle of 

* In the larger edition of the author's Introduction to the Study and 
Knowledge of the Scriptures, he has treated the oriental versions of the 
Old and New Testaments in distinct sections. They are here condensed. 
In order to avoid repetitions, that would otherwise be necessary. 



OF THE SCRIPTURES. 87 

Jude, as well as the disputed passages in John viii. 2— - 
11, and 1 John v. 7, are all wanting in the New Testa- 
ment of this version ; having been added in the sixth 
century by some unknown and indifferent translator. 
This version is much esteemed for its singular fidelity. 

2. The Philozenian, or Syro-Philoxenian Version, de- 
rives its name from Philoxenus or Xenayas, Bishop of 
Hierapolis in Syria, A. D. 488 — 518, who employed his 
rural bishop, Polycarp, to translate the New Testament 
from the original Greek into the vernacular Syriac of 
that time. Though inferior to the preceding, it is ne- 
vertheless of considerable value in a critical point of 
view, as well as for the interpretation of the New Tes- 
tament. 

3. The Syriac Translation of Jerusalem is known to 
have existed, from its having been discovered in a lec- 
tionarium, or book containing ecclesiastical lessons from 
the New Testament. It has never been published. 

II. Egyptian Versions. — Two Translations of the 
Scriptures have been made in the Egyptian language, 
— one in the Coptic or ancient dialect of Lower Egypt, 
the other in the Sahidic, or dialect of Upper Egypt, and 
both from the Greek. The Coptic Version is by some 
eminent scholars referred to the second or third century, 
though others carry its date so low as the fifth century ; 
the Sahidic Version was probably executed in the second 
century. 

III. Several Arabic Translations have been made at 
different times between the seventh, and the tenth or 
eleventh centuries, for the inhabitants of those countries, 
where the Syriac and Egyptian languages have been 
supplanted by the Arabic. They were not all executed 
from the original text, but from those versions, which 
they were intended to accompany. 

IV. The Ethiopic, or Abyssinian Version of the Old 
Testament was made from the Septuagint ; some frag- 
ments of it only have been printed, but the entire New 
Testament, has been published. This version is of con- 
siderable antiquity, the Old Testament being referred to 
the second, and the New Testament to the fourth 
century 

V. The Armenian Version of the Old Testament was 



33 ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS 

also made from the Septuagint ; the New Testament has 
been twice translated, from the Syriac, and then from the 
Greek. This version is ascribed to Miesrob, the inven- 
tor of the Armenian Alphabet, towards the close of the 
fourth, or early in the fifth century 

VI. Though the Scriptures are said to have been early 
translated into the Persian language, no fragments of 
this ancient version are extant. The Pentateuch is all 
that has been printed of the Old Testament ; it was tra*- 
lated by a Jew, and for the benefit of Jews. Of the ftow 
Testament, there are extant two versions of the four Gos- 
pels ; the most ancient and valuable of which is printed 
in the London Polyglott, by bishop Walton, from a ma- 
nuscript of the fourteenth century. 



Section IV.— Ancient Western Versions of the Scriptures. 

I. Many Latin Versions of the Scriptures were made 
at the first introduction of Christianity, by unknown au- 
thors. One of these, called the Vetus Itala, or Old Italic, 
appears to have acquired a more extensive circulation 
than the others, to which it was preferred on account of 
its clearness and fidelity. It was translated from the 
Greek, both in the Old and New Testaments; and was 
made in the early part of the second century. In the 
progress of time, very numerous alterations, however, 
being made by transcribers, Jerome, towards the close ot 
the fourth century, undertook to revise it, and make it 
more conformable to the original Greek. Some parts 
only of this revision have been preserved. But before it 
was completed, he undertook, and at length accomplished, 
a version of the Bible, which gradually acquired so great 
an authority in the West of Europe, that, ever since the 
seventh century, it has been exclusively adopted by the 
Romish Church ; and in the sixteenth century, the assem- 
bly or council of Trent pronounced the Latin Vulgate 
(for so this version is termed) to be authentic, and to be 
exclusively used in the public service of the church. Va- 
rious grave errors having crept into this version in the 
lapse of ages, several revisions were undertaken by learn 
ed men. Of these the most celebrated is the revision o. 



OF THE SCRIPTURES. g9 

Pope Sixtus V., published at Rome in 1590, but suppres- 
sed by Pope Clement VIII., whose authentic edition ap- 
peared in 1592. This edition has been followed in all 
subsequent impressions of the Latin Vulgate. Notwith- 
standing the variations between the Sixtine and Clemen- 
tine editions, (both published by infallible pontiffs !) and 
that several passages are mistranslated in order to sup- 
port the peculiar dogmas of the Romish Church, the La- 
tin Vulgate preserves many true readings, where the 
modern Hebrew copies are corrupted. 

II. The Gothic Version of the Bible was made from 
the Greek, both in the Old and New Testaments, by Ul- 
philas, Bishop of the Maeso-Goths, who invented the 
Gothic characters. A fragment of the Book of Nehemiah, 
the four Gospels, and some portions of the Epistles, are 
all that has been published, from this version ; which, 
though interpolated from the Latin Vulgate, is neverthe- 
less much esteemed for its general fidelity. 

III. The Sclavonic or Old Russian translation was 
executed from the Greek, in the ninth century, by the 
two brothers, Cyril and Methodius. It is said to have 
undergone several revisions ; and the New Testament is 
rendered with more perspicuity than the Old. 

IV. The Anglo-Saxon Version is ascribed by Dr. Mill 
to several authors, and is supposed to have been executed 
in the eighth and ninth centuries. Having been made 
from the Old Latin, it may be of use in determining the 
readings of that version. Several portions of it have been 
published at different times. 



Section V.— Use and Application of Ancient Versions. 

As no one version can be absolutely free from error, 
reliance ought not to be implicitly placed on any one 
translation. Versions of Versions, that is, versions not 
made immediately from the Hebrew of the Old Testament, 
or the Greek of the New Testament, are of authority 
only to determine the meaning of the version from which 
they are taken. 

I. The Alexandrian, or Septuagint Greek Version, from 
its very great antiquity, and its influence on the style of the 
New Testament, claims the first place. Next in order is, 



90 



ON TUB MODERN VERSIONS 



II. The Syriac Peschito, which is particularly service- 
able for the interpretation of the New Testament. 

III. The Latin Vulgate, with the exception of the Psalms, 
claims the third place 

IV. The Targums, or Chaldee Paraphrases, especially 
that of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, illustrate many difficult pas- 
sages in the Old Testament, as well as in the New Testa- 
ment. 

V. Other versions made immediately from the Hebrew 
and Greek originals follow next in order. 

Ancient versions need not to be consulted, except in 
passages that are really difficult, or unless an examination 
of them be instituted for some special object of inquiry. 



CHAPTER V. 

ON THE MODERN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

Numerous as were the ancient versions of the Sacred 
Scriptures, the publication of a version, being accomplish- 
ed by the tedious process of transcription, was necessarily 
slow, while the high price of manuscripts enabled only the 
wealthy to procure them. The discovery of the art of 
printing in the fifteenth century, and the establishment of 
the glorious reformation throughout Europe in the follow- 
ing century, facilitated the circulation of the Scriptures, 
both in the original Languages and through the medium 
of translations. The Modern Versions of the Scriptures 
are two-fold, viz. : in the Latin Language, and in the 
vernacular languages of almost all the countries in which 
Christianity has been propagated : and both are made, 
either by persons in communion with the Church 0/ 
Rome, or by Protestants, 



Section I. On the Modern Latin Versions of the Old and New Testament. 

I. Modern Latin Versions, executed in communion with 
the Church of Rome. 

1. The Version of Sanctes Pagninus a Dominican monk, 
was undertaken under the patronage of several popes ; and, 



OF THE SCRIPTURES 9| 

after twenty-five years of unremitting labour, was publish- 
ed in 1528. Though it has been censured by one critic 
for its close adherence to the original text,, all the later 
commentators and critics commend it for its exactness and 
fidelity. It contains only the Old Testament. This trans- 
lation was revised by 

2. Arias Montanus, who has from this circumstance been 
erroneously, considered as a new translator of the Bible 
into the Latin Language. Montanus's aim being to 
translate the Hebrew words by the same number of Latin 
words, his edition may rather be considered as a gramma- 
tical commentary than a true version, and is best adap- 
ted to suit young beginners in the Hebrew language. 

3. The translations of Thomas Malvenda, and of Car- 
dinal Cajetan (who was not the author of that which bears 
his name) have both fallen into oblivion. 

4. Houbigant's Latin Version of the Old Testament is 
framed according to the corrected Hebrew Text, publish- 
ed by him in 1753, in 4 vols, folio ; a work which has 
not answered the high expectations entertained of it. 

II. Modern Latin Versions of the Bible, executed by 
Protestants 

1. The translation of Sebastian Munster, first publish- 
ed in 1534, is considered, upon the whole, as very exact 
and conformable to the original. 

2. The Version which bears the name of Leo Juda, 
though commenced by him, was finished by others : it is 
acknowledged to be very faithful. It was first published in 
1543. 

3. Sebastian Chatillon (better known by the name of 
Castalio) in 1&51 published a version of the Bible, in which 
he aimed at rendering the Old and New Testaments into 
classical Latin. His style has been severely censured, as 
departing from the simph grandeur of the sacred originals. 

4. The Version of Francis Junius andlmmanual Tre- 
mellius, first printed in 1575, is held in great estimation 
for its simplicity, perspicuity, and fidelity. 

5. The Latin Translation of Sebastian Schmidt, publish- 
ed in 1696, is strictly literal. 

6. The Version of Professor J. A. Dathe, printed be- 
t veen the years 1779 and 1789, is deservedly in high 

„pute for its general fidelity and excellence, 



92 OX THE MODERN VERSIONS 

7. The Version of the Old Testament, commenced in 
1816, by H. A. Schott and J. F. Winzer, professes to be 
very close. The Pentateuch only has been published. 

III. Besides the preceding new modern Latin Versions, 
there have been several editions of the Latin Vulgate, so 
much corrected from the Hebrew and Greek originals, as 
in some degree to be considered new translations. Of 
this number are the Latin Bibles published by Isidore 
Clarius, in 1542 ; by Paul Eber, in 1565 ; and by Luke 
Osiander, in 1578, and Andrew Osiander in 1600. The 
edition of Clarius, who was a Romanist, is preferred to 
those of the other three Protestant scholars. 

IV. Of the Latin Version of the New Testament the 
following are the principal : 

1. Erasmus claims the first place. His version was 
published in 1516 ; and it is admitted that he succeeded 
in giving a clear and faithful version as far as it was pos- 
sible, at that time. He varied but little from the Vul- 
gate. 

2. The Latin Version of Theodore Beza, published in 
1556, has always been held in high estimation for its 
fidelity. 

3. The Latin Version of Leopoldo Sebastiani, which 
appeared in 1817, professes to be formed after the text 
of the Alexandrian Manuscript, collated with other MSS. 
and critical helps. In all doctrinal points it agrees with 
the tenets of the Romish Church. 



Section II.— Versions in the Modern Languages of Europe, Asia, Africa, 
and America. 

The translations of the Scriptures into the different 
modern languages, which are spoken in the four quarters 
of the globe, are so numerous, that it is extremely difficult 
to obtain correct accounts of all of them, and still more 
difficult to compress those accounts into an analysis like 
the present. The following tables, however, will exhibit 
at one view the principal translations, together with 
the dates when they appeared, the authors by whom they 
were executed, and the places where they were severally 



OF THE SCRIPTURES. 93 

printed. The first of these tables is taken from the second 
volume of the author's larger work, with a few addi- 
tions; and the second and third are given, by permission, 
from the eighteenth volume of the Encyclopaedia Me- 
tropolitana, for which work he originally composed them 



94 



ON THE MODERN VERSIONS 



Table I. 

VERSIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OF MODERN EUROPE. 



Translation. 


N. T. 


Bible. 


Author. 


Place of Printing 


German 


1522 


1534 


Martin Luther 


Wittemberg 


English 


1526 


1535 


Tindal, and Coverdale 


Uncertain 


Frsnch 




1535 


Robert Olivetan 


Geneva 


Swedish 


1534 


1541 


Olaus Petri 


Up9al, Sweden 


Danish 


1524 


1550 


Palladius and others 


Copenhagen 


Dutch 


. 


1560 






Italian 


. 


1562 


( Antonio Brucioli'sre- ) 
( viseu ? ) 
Cassiodorus de Reyna 


Geneva 


Spanish 


1556 


1569 


Frankfort orB^sil 


Russian 


1519 


1531 


Cyril and Methodius 


Ostrog 


Helvetian dialect 


1525 


1529 




Zuiich 


Lower Saxon dialect 


. 


1533 




Lubeck 


Finnish 


154S 


1642 




Stockholm 


Croatian • 


1553 


■ • 




Tubinger 


Basque 


1571 


. 




Rochelle 


Welsh 


1567 


15S3 




London 


Hungarian - 


1574 


15S9 




Vienna 


Wendish 




15S4 




Wiuemberg 


Icelandic 


. 


15S4 


Thorlaci 


Holum, Iceland 


Pomeranian diaiect - 


. 


1538 




Barth 


Polish 


15S5 


1596 


Several 




Bohemian 


_ 


1593 


Several 


Cralitz. Moravia 


Hebrew 


1599 


• 


Elias Hutter 


Nuremberg 


Modern Greek 


1633 


. 


Maximus Calliergi 


Geneva 


WalJachian - 


164S 


. 




Belgrade 


Romanese 


. 


1657 




Schuol 


Lithuanian - 


. 


1660 


Chylinsky 


London 


Turkish 


1666 


. 


Lazarus Seaman 


Oxford 


Irish 


1602 


1635 


Dr. Daniel, Bp. Bedell 


London 


Livonian 


1635 


16S9 




Riga 


Esthonian 


16S5 


1639 




Ris-a 


Esthonian, dialect of 


16S6 


• 




Riga 


Dorpatian dialect 


17-27 








Orisons 


. 


17J9 




Coirs 


Upper Lusatian 


1706 


1728 


Several 


Bautzen 


Lapponic 


1755 








Manks 


- 


1763 


( BishopsWilson andHil- 
l desley, 
I James Stewart and > 
I others J 
5 Ferreira d'Almeida. ) 
I Cath. \ 




Gaelic 


1767 


1S02 


Edinburgh 


Portuguese >\ 


1712 


1743-53 


Amsterdam and 
Batavia 


I 


1781 


1783 


Antonio Pereira, Cain. 


Lisbon 


Spanish 


. 


1793,4 


Padre Scio, Cath. 


Madrid 


Maltese 


1320 


- 


< Rev.W. Jowett, M.A. > 
t and Signor Cannolo 5 


Malta 


Samogitian 


1820 






Petersburgh 


Judaeo-Polish 


1S21 


. 


N. Solomon 


London 


Modern Russ 


1821 




] 




Russian Dialects, viz 










Karelian (Gospel ? 
of Matthew) S 


1S20 


- 


■ Russian Bible Society 


Petersburgh 


Mordwassian (4 ) 
Gospels) 5 


1821 














Tcheremissian,(4 j 
Gospels) S 


1821 










J 





OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

Table II. 

VERSIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OP MODERN ASIA. 



95 





New Te 


stament, or 


Bible, or 


Old Testa- 








detached Books 


ment, or detached 








thereof. 


Books thereof. , 




Place of 


Language. 








Author. 


New 


Detached 


Bible, or 


Detached 


Printing. 




Test. 


Books. 


Old Tes. 


Books. 






1. Arabic, and 














its derivative 














languages. 
tdrabic, 


1816 


4 Goap. 
1804 


\ Z 


: s 


N. Sabat and Rev. 
H. Martyn, B. D. 


> Calcutta 


Persian 


~ J 




Lt.Ool. Colebrookc 


J 




1815 








Rev. H. Martyn 


Petersburg^ 


Pushtoo 


1813 


- 


-I 


Gen. Lev. 
1822 


John Leyden, M.D. 
and others. 


i Serampore 


Bulocha 


- 


( 4 Gosp. 
1 1316 




— 






2. Sanscrit, 














and its de- 














rivative lan- 














guages. 














Sanscrit, 


1808 


— 


1811-18 


— 






SikhorPun- 
jabee 


jlSll 

1819 


- 


— 


Pent. 1818 






Assamese 


_ 


— 


— 




Kashmiree 


1S19 


— 


— 









Wutch, or 


|lS19 

1S20 
1819 












Multanee 


"*~ 


~~ 


— 






Guzerattee 
Bikaneer 


— 


— 


— 


Baptist > 
Missionaries J 


Serampore 


Kunkuna 


1318 


— 


__ 


__ 






Maruvvar 


1822 


— 












Oojuvinee 


1322 


— - 


__ 


__ 






Bundelkun- 


^1822 
1822 












dee 


~ 


— 


— 






Nepaulese 


— 


_ 


_ 












f 


Pent, and 






Mahratta 


1807 




" 


Hist. Bks. 

1312-15 

Pnt. Hist. 






Hindee 


1912 


- 


- • 


and Poet. 
Books, 






Hindoostan- 
hee 


(,- 


— 


— 


1806-12 
Ps. 1747 


( Danish Mission 
I Benj. Schultz 


I Halle 
Calcutta 
I Serarapo e 


•Bengalee I 


1S08--14 


— * 


— 




Rev. H. Martyn 


1801 


— 


1801-05 




( Baptist Mission- 
l aries 


Orissa 


1807 


— 


1809-14 


— 


Canarese 


1S20 


— 







Rev. W. Hands 




Tamul 


1715 


- 


1723-28 


- 


(Danish Miss. ") 
< Ziegenbalg, V 
( and Schultz ) 


Tranquebai 


Telinga or ? 
Telogoo S 


_ \ 


Gosp. of 
Mark, 


\- 




VL. Des Granges 


{ Vizagapa 
) tarn 


I 


1812 


) ( 


Gen. Ex. 


Tybrantz and 
Phillipz 


i 


C 


1771-30 




- ) 


and Lev it. 


V Colombo 


Cingalese 1 






( 


1771-83 


( Mr. W. Tolfrey 
I and others 




( 


1820 


— 


— 


~~ 


J 














Amsterdam 


Malay 


1663 


— 


1731-33 




Various Persons < 


& Batavia 



96 



ON THE MODERN VERSIONS 

Table II. — continued. 





New Testament, or 


Bible, or 


Old Testa- 








detached Books 


ment, or detached 






Language. 


thereof. 


Books thereof. 


Author. 


Place of 


i New 


Detached 


Bible, or Detached 


Printing. 




Test. 


Books. 


Old Tes. 


Books. 






C 


1309-14 


— 


1315-21 


— 


Rev.Dr.Marshman 


Seramporo 


3. Chinese < 


1311-13- 
16 


— 


1815-20 


— 


( Rev.Dr.Morriaon 
I & Rev.Mr. Milne 


> Canton 


4. Other Asia- 














tic Versions 














Formosan 


1313 
1820 


Matt, and 
John 1661 


i- 




Robert Junius 


Amsterdam 


Tartar 
Orenburg ) 
Tartar $ 




Fsal. 1815 


Edin. Soc. Mission 
Ditto 


( Karass Si 
I Astrachau 
Astrachat 


Calmuc ) 
Tartar \ 


1815-20 


— 


- 


— 


Morav. Mission 1 




Montgolian 5 


IS 


Matt, and 


i- 


- f 


Two Mongolian [ 


Petersburg! 


Tartar J 


Luke 1815 


Chieftains 




Georgian 


— 


1743 




Unknown 


Moscow 


Otaheitean or 


j 1813-25 








(Missionaries of 
f theLond. Soc. 


Eimeo and 


Tahitan 








Tahift 



Table III. 

VERSIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OF MODERN AFRICA AND AMERICA. 



Language. 



'African. 

Bullom. 

Amharic, 
dialeet of 
Abyssinia 
American In- 
dian. 

Virginian 

Delaware 

Indian-Massa- 
chusett 

Mohawk 



Esquimaux 
Grcenl andish 
West Indian. 
Cfeolesc 



New Testament, or 
detached Books 
thereof. 



New Detached 
Test. Books 



1822 



-I 



1809-13-19 
1799 



1781 



Gosp. of 
Matt. 
1816 



3 Epist. 
of John 

1813 
Gosp. of 

John 

1709 

Matt. 
Mark, & 

John 
17S7, 1304 



Bible, or Old Testa- 
ment,or detached 
Books thereof. 



Bible, or] Detached 
Old Tea. Books. 



i- 



Author. 



Rev.G.Ny lander 1 



M. Asselin 
Cherville 



def 



Psal. 1709 



Rev. John Eliot \ 

C. F. Denke 

( Experience 
I Mayhew 

Rev. Mr. Freeman 
Capt. Brant 
Capt. Norton 

Moravian Mission 
Ditto 

Unknown 



Place of 
Printing 



London 



Cambridge 

New Eng. 

New-York 



Boston, New 
England 



London 



Copenha 
gen 



OF THE SCRIPTURES. 97 

Of the numerous versions noticed in the preceding ta- 
bles, those are most interesting to the reader, which have 
been executed in our vernacular tongue : a few particu- 
lars, therefore, respecting the different translations into the 
English language, which have been made at different 
times, will appropriately conclude this section. 

The earliest English translation, known to be extant, 
was made by an unknown individual, and is placed by 
Archbishop Usher to the year 1290. Of this there are 
three manuscript copies preserved in the Bodleian Libra- 
ry, and in the Libraries of Christ's Church and Queen's 
Colleges, Oxford. Towards the close of the following 
century, John de Trevisa, vicar of Berkeley, in Glouces- 
tershire, is said to have translated the Old and New Tes- 
taments into the English tongue, at the request of his pa- 
tron, Lord Berkeley : but as no part of this work appears 
ever to have been printed, the translation ascribed to him 
is supposed to have been confined to a few texts, which 
were painted on the walls of his patron's chapel, at Ber- 
keley Castle, or which are scattered in some parts of his 
writings ; several copies of which are known to exist in 
manuscript. Nearly contemporary with him, was the cele- 
brated John Wickliffe, who, about the year 1380, transla- 
ted the entire Bible from the Latin Vulgate : the New 
Testament of Wickliffe was published in folio by Mr. 
Lewis in 1731 ; and was handsomely re-edited in quarto, 
in 1810, by the Rev. Henry Hervey Baber, one of the 
librarians of the British Museum, who prefixed a valuable 
memoir of this " Apostle of England," as Wickliffe has 
sometimes been called. 

The first printed edition of any part of the Scriptures 
in English was of the New Testament, at Hamburgh, in 
the year 1526. It was translated by William Tindal, or 
Tyndale, with the assistance of John Fry and William 
Roye : the whole of this impression (with the exception, 
it is said, of a single copy,) being bought up and burnt by 
Tonstal, Bishop of London, and Sir Thomas More, Tindal 
put forth a new edition in 1527, and a third in 1528 ; 
and, two years after, his translation of the Pentateuch ap- 
peared at Hamburgh, with another edition of his Testa- 
ment. In 1535 was published the translation of Miles 
Coverdale^ great part of which was Tindal's ; and two 



98 ON THE MODERN VERSIONS 

years after, John Rogers, martyr, (who had assisted Tin- 
dal in his biblical labours,) edited a Bible, probably at 
Hamburgh, under the assumed name of Thomas Matthews, 
whence it is generally known by the name of Matthews's 
Bible. A revised edition of this translation, corrected by 
Cranmer and Coverdale, was printed at London, in 1539, 
by Grafton and Whitchurch, in large folio, and from its 
size is usually denominated the great bible. No new 
version was executed during the reign of Edward VI. ; 
though several editions were printed both of the Old and 
New Testaments. 

During the sanguinary reign of Queen Mary, Miles 
Coverdale, John Knox, Christopher Goodman, and other 
English exiles, who had taken refuge at Geneva, publish- 
ed a new translation, between the years 1557 and 1560, 
with short annotations, inculcating the doctrines espoused 
by Calvin. The New Testament of this edition was the 
first in English, which was divided into verses. The Ge- 
neva Bible was highly esteemed by the Puritans ; and, in 
the course of little more than thirty years afterwards, not 
fewer than thirty editions of it were printed in various 
sizes, principally by the royal printers. This translation 
is allowed to possess considerable merit, for its general 
fidelity and perspicuity. Eight years after the comple- 
tion of the Geneva Bible, a new version was published, 
with two prefaces, by Archbishop Parker, now generally 
termed the Bishops' Bible, from the circumstance of eight 
of the translators being bishops : although this translation 
was read in the churches, the Geneva Bible was generally 
preferred in families. 

In 1582, the Roman Catholics published in 4to. an En- - 
glish translation of the New Testament at Rheims, and 
of the Old Testament at Douay, in 1609-10, in 2 vol- 
umes 4to. It was crowded with barbarous and foreign 
terms, calculated to perplex rather than to diffuse the light 
of truth. 

The last English version, which remains to be noticed, 
is the translation now in use, which is commonly called 
King James's Bible. Shortly after his accession to the 
throne in 1603, several objections being made to the En- 
glish Bible, the King, at the Conference held at Hampton 
Court in the following year, commanded that a new ver- 



MODERN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 99 

sion snould be undertaken, and fifty-four men, of distin- 
guished learning and piety, were appointed to this im- 
portant labour : but, before it was begun, seven of the 
persons were either dead, or had declined the task. 
Such of them as survived till the commencement of the 
work, being ranged under six divisions, entered upon their 
labour in 1607, and completed it in 1610 ; it was then 
revised by a committee of six of the translators, and final- 
ly reviewed by Bishop Bilson and Doctor Smith ; the 
latter prefixed the arguments, and wrote the preface. 
This translation, generally known by the name of King 
James's Bible, was first printed in 1611, and is that now 
universally adopted wherever the English language is spo- 
ken. The edition, generally reputed to be the most cor- 
rect, is that of Oxford, in quarto and folio, 1769, printed 
under the superintendence of the late Rev. Dr. Bfayney : 
the text was carefully collated with several correct edi- 
tions, and the punctuation amended ; the summaries of 
chapters and running titles at the top of each page were 
also corrected, and 30,495 new references were inserted 
in the margin. From the singular pains bestowed, in 
order to render this edition as accurate as possible, it has 
hitherto been considered the standard edition, from which 
all subsequent impressions have been executed. Notwith- 
standing, however, the great labour and attention bestow- 
ed by Dr. Blayney, his edition must now yield the palm 
of accuracy to the very beautiful and correct editions pub- 
lished by Messrs. Eyre and Strahan, His Majesty's Prin- 
ters, but printed by Mr. Woodfall in 1806, and again in 
1813 in quarto ; as not fewer than one hundred and six- 
teen errors were discovered in collating the edition of 
1806 with Dr. B.'s, and one of these errors was an omis- 
sion of considerable importance. Messrs. Eyre and Stra- 
han's editions may therefore be regarded as approaching 
as near as possible to what bibliographers term an imma- 
culate text. 

Of all modern versions, the present authorised English 
translation is, upon the whole, undoubtedly the most ac- 
curate and faithful ; the translators having seized the very 
spirit of the sacred writers, and having almost every where 
expressed their meaning with a pathos and energy that 
have never been rivalled by any subsequent versions 



100 VARIOUS READINGS 

either of the Old or the New Testament. " Its style is 
incomparably superior to any thing which might be ex- 
pected from the finical and perv r erted taste of our own 
age. It is simple ; it is harmonious ; it is energetic ; and, 
which is of no small importance, use has made it familiar 
and time has rendered it sacred."* 



CHAPTER VI. 

OF THE VARIOUS READINGS OCCURRING IN THB OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 

I. Origin and Nature of Various Readings. 

The Old and New Testaments, in common with all 
other ancient writings, being preserved and diffused by 
transcription, the admission of mistakes was unavoidable : 
which, increasing with the multitude of copies, necessari- 
ly produced a great variety of different readings. 

Among two or more different readings, one only can 
be the true reading ; the rest must either be wilful cor- 
ruptions, or the mistakes of the copyist. As it is often 
difficult to distinguish the genuine from the spurious, 
whenever the smallest doubts can be entertained, they all 
receive the appellation of Various Readings : but, where 
a transcriber has evidently written falsely, they receive 
the name of errata. 

II. Sources of Various Readings. 

As all manuscripts were either dictated to copyists, or 
transcribed by them : and, as all these persons were not 
supernaturally guarded against the possibility of error, 
different readings would naturally be produced, 1. By 
the negligence or mistakes of the transcribers ; to which 
we may add, 2. The existence of errors or imperfections 
in the manuscript copied ; 3. Critical emendations of the 
text made by the copyist without any authority ; and 4. 
Wilful corruptions made to serve the purposes of a party. 
Mistakes thus produced in one copy, would of course be 
propagated through all succeeding copies made from it, 
each of which might have peculiar faults of its own ; so 
that various readings would thus be increased, in propor- 
tion to the number of transcripts made. 

• Bishop Middleton on the Greek article, p. 328. 



VARIOUS READINGS. jyj 

III. The means by which the true reading is to be de- 
termined are, 1. Manuscripts ; 2. The most ancient, and 
best Editions ; 3. Ancient Versions ; 4. Parallel Passa- 
ges, (which, being an important help to interpretation, are 
noticed again in a subsequent page ;) 5. Quotations made 
from the Scriptures in the Writings of the early Fathers 
of the Christian Church ; and 6. Conjectural Criticisms. 
All these sources are to be used with great judgment and 
caution ; and the common reading ought not to be reject- 
ed but upon the strongest evidence. 

IV. Infidels have endeavoured to shake the faith of 
less informed Christians, by raising objections against the 
number of various readings. The unlettered Christian, 
however, need not be under any apprehension that they 
will diminish the certainty of his faith. Of all the many 
thousand various readings that have been discovered, 
none have been found that affect our faith, or destroy a 
single moral precept of the Gospel. They are mostly of 
a minute and trifling nature : and by far the greatest 
number make no alteration whatever in the sense. Such 
are Aa/3i8 (DaBtd) for AclvlS (David ;) EoXo/iwvra (SolomonTa) 
for HoXojjLcova (Solomona) Solomon; tcayoy (kago) for K ai eyw 
(kai ego) ( ^/^ for and I ;) Na^sr (NazareT) for Neaped 
(NazareTn) Nazareth ; which, with many others, may be 
used indifferently. 



CHAPTER VII 

ON THE QUOTATIONS FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. 

A considerable difference of opinion exists among 
some learned men, whether the evangelists and other 
writers of the New Testament quoted the Old Testament 
from the Hebrew, or from the venerable Greek versions 
usually called the Septuagint. From an actual collation 
of the passages thus cited, (which is given at length in 
Hebrew, Greek, and English, in the author's larger work,) 
it appears, that, though the sacred writers of the New 
Testament have in many instances quoted from the He- 
brew Scriptures ; yet they have very frequently made their 
citations from the Septuagint, because it was generally 



IQ2 ON TUE «M- : OTAT»MS FROM 

known and read : and as the apostles wrote for the use of 
communities, whose members were ignorant of Hebrew, 
it was necessary on that account that they should refer to 
the Greek version. But where this materially varied 
from the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures, they either 
gave the sense of the passage cited, in their own words, 
or took as much of the Septuagint as was necessary, in- 
troducing the requisite alterations. 

Difficulty sometimes arises, with respect to the appli- 
cation of the quotations made by the apostles and evan- 
gelists ; when they are applied to a purpose to which they 
seem to have no relation, according to their original 
design. This difficulty is occasioned by the writers of 
the New Testament making quotations from the Old, with 
very different views. It is, therefore, necessary to dis- 
tinguish accurately between such quotations as, being 
merely borrowed, are used in the w r ords of the writer 
himself, and such as are quoted in proof of a doctrine, or 
the completion of a prophecy 

The quotations from the Old Testament in the New 
are generally introduced by certain formulae, such as, That 
it might be fulfilled — As it is written — &c, and various 
rules have been framed in order to account for their ap- 
plication. They may, however, be referred to the four 
following classes, viz. : 

I. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New, in 
which the things predicted are literally accomplished. 

Direct Prophecies are those which relate exclusively to 
Christ and the Gospel, and cannot legitimately be taken 
in any other sense ; and the Scripture is said to be ful- 
filled in the literal sense, when that event which it 
foretells is accomplished. The following table exhibits 
the principal quotations which belong to this class : 

Gen. xii. 3.xviii. 18. xxii. 18. quoted in Acts iii. 25. Gal. iii. 



Gen. xvii. 7. 19. xxii. 16, 17 
Deut. xviii. 15. 19. 
Psalm ii. 1, 2. - 
Psalm ii. 7. • 
Psalm viii. 2. • 
Psalm viii. 4. - 
Psalm xvi. 8 — 11. 
Psalm xvi. 10. 
Psalm xxii. 1. 

Psalm xxii. 18. 

Psalm xxii. 22. 



Luke i. 55. 72, 73, 74. 

Acts iii. 22, 23. 

Acts iv. 25, 26. 

Acts xii. 33. Heb. i. 5. v. 4. 

Matt. xxi. 16. 

Heb. ii. 6—8. 

Acts ii. 25—28. 31. 

Acts xiii. 35. 

Matt, xxvii. 46. Mark xv. 34. 

Matt, xxvii. 35. Mark xv. 34. 

Luke xxiii. 34. John xix. 24 
Heb. ii. 12. 



THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. 



103 



Psalm xxxi. 5. 
Psalm xli. 9. 
Psalm xlv. 6, 7. - 
Psalm lxviil. 18. • 

Psalm lxix. 21. 

Psalm lxix. 25, cix. 8. « 
Psalm xcv. 7 — 11. - 
Psalm cii. 25—27. • 

Psalm ex. 1. • • * 

Psalm ex. 4. - 

Psalm cxviil. 22, 23. 

Psalm cxviii. 25, 26. 
Psalm exxxii. 11. 17. 
Isa. vii. 14. 

Isa. ix. 7. (with Dan. vii. 14. 

Isa. xi. 10. 

Isa. xxv. 8. 

Isa. xxvii. 9, and lix. 20, 21. 

Isa. xxviii. 16. (with Joel ii. 32 

Isa. xl. 3—5. - 

Isa. xliii. 1 — 4. 

Isa. xlix. 6. 

Isa. liii. 1. 

Isa. liii. 3—6. 

Isa. liii. 4—6. 11. 

Isa. liii. 4. 

Isa. liii. 9. 

Isa. liii. 12. 

Isa. liv. 13. - 

Isa. lv. 3. 

Jer. xxxi. 31 

Hosea i. 10. 

Hosea ii. 23. 

Joel ii. 28—32. (in the Hebrew, iii. 

1-4.) 
Amosix. 11, 12. 
Micah v. 2. 
Habak. i. 5. • 
Haggai ii. 6. - 
Zech. ix. 9. 
Zech. xi. 13. - 
Zech. xii. 10. - 
Zech. xiii. 7. - 
Mai. iii. 1. 

Mai. iv. 5, 6. • 



-34. 



quoted in Luke xxiii. 46. 

John xiii. 18. Acts i. 16. 

Heb. i. 8, 9. 

Eph. iv. 7, 8. 
$ John xix. 28, 29. Matt, xxvil. 48. 
( Mark xv. 36. and Luke xxiii. 36. 

Acts i. 20. 

Heb. iii. 7—11, iv. 3. 5—7. 

Heb. i. 10—12. 

Matt. xxii. 44. Mark xii. 36. Luke 
xx. 42. Acts ii. 34 35. Heb. i. 
13. 

Heb. v. 6. 
$ Matt. xxi. 42. Mark xii. 10. Luke 
i xx. 17. Actsiv. 11. 

Matt. xxi. 9. Mark xi. 9. John xii. 13. 

Luke i. 69. Acts ii. 30. 

Matt. i. 23. 

Matt. iv. 15, 16. 
27.) - Luke i. 32, 33. 

• Rom. xv. 12. 

- 1 Cor. xv. 54. 

- Rom. xi. 26, 27. 
** - Rom. ix. 33. and 1 Pet. ii. 6. 

- Matt. iii. 3. Mark i. 3. Luke iii. 4—6. 

- Matt. xii. 17—21. 

- Acts xiii. 47, and xxvi. 23. Luke ii. 32. 

- John xii. 38. Rom. x. 16. 

- Acts xxvi. 22, 23. 

• 1 Pet. ii. 24, 25. 

- Matt. viii. 17. 

• 1 Pet. ii. 22. 

- Mark xv. 28. Luke xxii. 37. 

- John vi. 45. 
. Acts xiii. 34. 

- Heb. viii. 8—12. x. 16, 17. 

• Rom. ix. 26. 

- Rom. ix. 25. Pet, ii. 10. 

I Acts ii. 16—21. 

Acts xv. 16, 17. 

Matt. ii. 5, 6. John vii. 42. 

Acts xiii. 40. 

Heb. xii. 26. 

Matt. xxi. 4, 5. John xii. 14. 16. 

Matt, xxvii. 9, 10. 

John xix. 37. 

Matt. xxvi. 31. 56. Mark xiv. 27. 50. 

Matt. xi. 10. Mark i. 2. Luke vii. 27. 
$ Matt. xi. 13, 14. xvii. 10—13. Mark 
I ix. 11—13. Luke i. 16, 17. 



II. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New, in 
which that is said to have been done, of which the Scrip- 
tures have not spoken in a literal, but in a spiritual sense. 

There are citations out of the Old Testament in the 
New, in a mediate and typical, or spiritual sense, respect- 
ing Christ and his mystical body, the Church. The 
Scripture is therefore said to be fulfilled, when that is 



104 



ON THE QUOTATIONS FROM 



accomplished in the antitype which is written concerning 
the type. Thus, in John, xix. 36, we read, These things 
were done that the Scripture should be fulfilled, — "a 
bone of him shall not be broken." These words, which 
were originally written of the paschal lamb, (Exod. xii. 
46. Numb. ix. 12.) are said to be fulfilled in Christ, who 
is the antitype of that lamb. Additional examples of the 
same kind will be found in the annexed passages 



Gen. xiv. 18, 20. cited and applied in 

Gen. xv. 5. 

Gen. xvi. 15. • 

Gen. xvii. 4. • 

Gen. xviii. 10. 

Gen. xxi. 1 — 3. 

Gen. xxi. 12. • 

Gen. xxv. 23. - 

Exod. xii. 46. Numb. Ix. 12. 

Exod. xvi. 13—15. • 

Exod. xvii. 6. Numb. xx. 11 

Exod. xix. 6. - 

Exod. xxiv. 8. 

Levit. xxvi. 11, 12. 

Numb. xxi. 8, 9. • 

Deut. xxi. 23. 

Deut. xxxii. 21. 

2 Sam. vii. 14. 

Psalm ii. 9. 

Psalm viii. 4. • 

Psalm viii. 6. - 

Psalm xviii. 49. 

Psalm xxxv. 19. lxlx. 4. and cix. 3. 

Psalm xl. 6—8. 

Psalm lxix. 9. 

Psalm civ. 4. 

Isa. xl. 6, 7. - 

Isa. lii. 7. and Nahum i. 15. 

Isa. liv. 1. 

Isa. lxiv. 4. 

Hosea, xi. 1. ., 

Jonah i. 17. 11. 1. and ili 

Habak. ii. 3. - 

Habak. ii. 4. • 



Heb. vii. 1—10. 

Rom. iv. 18. 

Gal. Iv. 22. 

Rom. iv. 17. 

Rom. ix. 9. 

Gal. iv. 22, &c 

Rom. ix. 7. 

Rom. ix. 10. 

John xix, 36. 

John vi. 31. 49. 1 Cor. X. 3. 

1 Cor. x. 4. 

1 Pet. ii. 9. 
Heb. ix. 20. 

2 Cor. vi. 16. 
John iii. 14. 
Gal. iii. 13. 
Rom. x. 19. 
Heb. i. 5. 
Rev. ii. 27. 
Heb. ii. 6—8. 
1 Cor. xv. 27. 
Rom. xv. 9. 
John xv. 25. 
Heb. x. 6, 7. 
John ii. 17. 
Heb. i. 7. 

1 Pet. i. 24, 25. 

Rom. x. 15. 

Gal. iv. 27. 

1 Cor. ii. 9. 

Matt. Ii. 15. 

Mat. xii. 40, 41. Luke xt 30. 32. 

Heb. x. 37. 

Rom. i. 17. Gal. lit 11. Heb. x. ! 



III. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New, 
in which a thing is done neither in a literal nor in a 
spiritual sense, according to the fact referred to in the 
Scriptures, but is similar to that fact; in other words, 
where the passages referred to, are cited in the way of 
illustration. 

Numerous passages of the Old Testament are cited and 
applied by the writers of the New Testament to an oc- 
currence, which happened in their time, merely on account 



THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. 



105 



of correspondence and similitude. These citations are not 
prophecies, though they are said sometimes to be fulfilled. 
This method of explaining Scripture by the way of illus- 
tration, will enable us to solve many difficulties relating 
to the prophecies. Similar instances, are to be found in 
some classic authors. 

The following table presents a list of the passages, thus 
quoted from the Old Testament, by the writers of the 
New, in the way of illustration : 



Gen. xv. 5. 

Gen. xv. 6. 

Gen. xviii. 10. 
Gen. xix. 15. 26. « 
Gen. xxi. 12. 
Gen. xxv. 23. 
Gen. xxv. 33. 
Gen. xxvii. 28, &c. 
Exod. ix. 16. 
Exod. xxxii. 6. • 
Exod. xxxiii. 19. 
Lev. xi. 45. 
Lev. xviii. 5. 
Deut. vi. 13. 
Deut. vi. 16. 
Deut. viii. 3. 
Deut. xxv. 4. 
Deut. xxvii. 26. • 
Deut. xxxii. 35. • 
Deut. xxxii. 36. 
Deut. xxxii. 43. • 
Josh. i. 5. - 

1 Sam. xxi. 6. • 

1 Kings xix. 14. 18. 
Psalm v. 10. and cxl. 
Psalm x. 7. - 
Psalm xiv. 1 — 3. and 
Psalm xix. 4. 
Psalm xxiv. I. • 
Psalm xxviii. 16. 
Psalm xxxii. 1, 2. 
Psalm xxxiv. 12 — 16. 
Psalm xxxvi. 1. • 
Psalm xliv. 22. - 
Psalm li. 4. 
Psalm Ixix. 9. 
Psalm lxix. 22, 23. 
Psalm lxxviii. 2. 
Psalm lxxxii. 6. 
Psalm cxii. 9. 
Psalm cxvi. 10. • 
Psalm cxvii. 1. - 
Psalm cxviii. 6. - 
Prov. i. 16. Isa. lix. 78 
Prov. iii. 11, 12. 
Prov, iii. 34. 



liii. 1 



cited in Rom. iv. 18. 

$ Rom. iv. 3. Gal. iii. 6. and James 
" I ii. 23. 

• Rom. ix. 9. 
- Luke xv ii. 28, 29. 32. 

• Rom. ix. 7. 



Rom. v. 12. 

Heb. xii. 16. 

Heb. xi. 20. xli. 17. 

Horn. ix. 7. 

I Cor. x. 7. 

Rom. ix. 15. 

1 Pet. i. 16. 

Rom. x. 5. Gal. iii. 12. 

Matt. iv. 10. Luke iv. 8. 

Matt. iv. 7. Luke iv. 12. 

Matt. iv. 4. Luke Iv. 4. 

1 Cor. ix. 9. 1 Tim. v. 18. 

■ Gal. iii. 10. 

Rom. xii. 19. Heb. x. 30. 
Heb. x. 30. 
Rom. xv. 10. 

■ Heb. xiii. 5. 

$ Matt, xii. 3, 4. Mark ii. 25, 26 
i Luke vi. 3, 4. 
. Rom. xi. 3, 4. 

Rom. iii. 13. 

Rom. iii. 14. 

Rom. iii. 10—12. 

■ Rom, x. 18. 

• 1 Cor. x. 26. 

■ Rom. x. 11. 

• Rom. iv. 7, 8. 

• 1 Pet. iii. 10—12, 
. Rom. iii. is; 

■ Rom. viii. 36. 

• Rom. iii. 4. 

• Rom. xv. 3. 

. Rom. xi. 9, 10. 
Matt. xiii. 35. 

■ John x. 34. 

• 2 Cor. ix. 9. 

. 2 Cor. iv. 13 
Rom. xv. 11. 
Heb. xiii. 6. 
Rom. iii. 15—17. 
Heb. xii. 5, 6. 
James iv. 6. 



10(5 



ON THE QUOTATION'S IROM 



Prov. x. 12. 
Prov. xxv. 21, 22. 
Prov. xxvi. 11. • 
Isa. i. 9. 

Isa. vi. 9, 10. 



Isa. 
Isa. 
Isa. 
Isa. 
Isa. 
Isa. 



Isa. 



viii. 12, 13. 
viii. 17, 18. 
x. 22, 23. 
xxix. 10. 
xxix. 13. 
xxix. 14. 
xxix. 1 6, and xlv, 
xlv. 23. 

lii. 5. with Ezek 
Hi. 7. and Nahum 
lii. 11, 12. 
lii. 15. - 



Isa. lvi. 7. and Jer. vii. 1 

Isa. lxi. 1, 2. 

Isa. lxv. 1, 2. 

Isa. lxvi. 1, 2. 

Jer. xxxi. 15. 

Jer. xxxi. 33. and xxxii. 

2 Sam. vii. 14.) 
Hab. ii. 4. - 
Joel ii. 32. - 
Mai. i. 2, 3. 



■\ 



Matt. xlil. 14, 15 
Rom. xi. 8 



xxx vi. 
i. 



cited in 1 Pet. tv. 8. 
Rom. xii. 20. 
1 Pet. ii. 22. 
Rom. ix. 29. 
John xii. 40. 

Luke viii. 10. 
1 Pet iii. 14, 15. 
Heb. ii. 13. 
Rom. ix. 27, 28. 
Rom. xi, 8. 
Matt. xv. 8, 9. Mark vii. 6. 

1 Cor. i. 9. 
Rom. ix. 20, 21. 
Rom. xiv. 11. Phil. 11. 10. 
Rom. ii. 24, 
Rom. x. 15. 

2 Cor. vi. 17. 
Rom. xv. 21. 

q Matt. xxi. 13. Mark xi. 17. Luke 
I xix. 46. 

Luke iv. 18, 19. 

Rom. x. 20, 21. 

Acts vii. 49, 50. 

Matt. ii. 17. 18. 



38. with^ 2Cor>vi>18! 



• Rom. i. 17. 

• Rom. x. 13. 

• Rom. ix. 13. 



IV. Quotations and other passages from the Old Tes- 
tament which are alluded to in the New. 

The following table presents a list of the principal pas- 
sages of this description : 



Gen. i. 6. 9, 

Gen. 1. 27. 

Gen. ii. 2, 3. 
Gen. ii. 7. 
Gen. ii. 21, 22. 

Gen. ii. 24. 

Gen. iii. 6. 
Gen. iii. 4, 13. 
Gen. iii. 16. 
Gen. iv. 4 

Gen. iv. 8. 

Gen. v. 24 - 

Gen. vi. vii 

Gen. xii. 1—4. 
Gen. xiii. 15. 
Gen. xv. 13, 14. 
Gen. xvii. 10. 
Gen. xviii. 3. xix. 2 
Gen. xviii. 10. 
Gen. xviii. 12. 
Gen. xix. 12. 



alluded to in 2 Pet, iii. 5. 

; Matt. xix. 4. Mark x. 6. 1 Cor. xi. 7. 
( James iii. 9. 

Heb. iv. 4. 

1 Cor. xv. 45. 

1 Cor. xi. 8. 1 Tim. ii. 13. 
< Matt. xix. 5. Mark x. 7. 1 Cor. vi. 16. 
I Eph. v. 31. 

1 Tim. ii. 14. 

2 Cor. xi. 3. 
1 Cor. xiv. 34 
Heb. xi. 4. 

$ Matt, xxiii. 35. Luke xL 61. I John 
( iii. 12. Jude verse 11. 

Heb. xi. 5. 
(Matt. xxiv. 37, 3S. Luke xvii. 26, 27. 
\ Heb. xi. 7. 1 Pet. iii. 19, 20. 2 Pet 
C ii. 5. iii. 6. 

Acts vii. 5. Heb. xl 8. 

Rom. iv. 13. 

Acts vii. 6, 7. 

Acts vii. 8. 

Heb. xiii. 2. 

Heb. xi. 11. 

1 Pet ill. 6. 

2 Pet. ii. 6. Jude verse 7. 



THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. . 



107 



alluded to in 



Gen. zxl. 12. 

Gen. xlvi. 27. 
Gen. xlvii. 31. 
Gen. 1. 24. 
Exod. ii. 2. 11. 

Exod. iii. 6. 

Exod. xii. 12. 18. 
Exod. xiv. 22. 
Exod. xix. 12. 18, 19. 

Exod. xx. 12—16. Deut. v. 16—20. 

Lev. xlii. 2. Numb. vlll. 16, 17. xviii. 

15. 17. 
Lev. xiv. 3, 4. 10. 
Lev. xix. 12. 
Lev. xix. 18. 
Numb. xi. 4. 
Numb. xiv. 23. 29. 37. &xxvi. 64, 65. 
Numb. xxi. 4—6. 
Numb. xxii. 23. 39. 
Deut. xviii. 1, 
Deut. xxiv. 1. 
Josh. ii. 1. vi. 22, 23 
Josh. vi. 20. 
Judges, the whole book generally, 
1 Sam. viii. 5. and x. 1. 
1 Sam. xiii. 14. xv. 23. xvi. 12, 13, 
1 Kings xvii. 1. and xviii. 42—45 
I Chron. xxiii. 13. 
Psalm xc. 4. 
Prov. xxvil. 1. 
Isa. xii. 3. 
Isa. lxvi. 24. 
Jer. vi. 16. 
Lam. iii. 45. 
Dan. iii. 23—25 
•Dan. ix. 27. xii. 11. 
Hos. xiii. 14. 
IF os. xiv. 2. 
Amos v. 26, 27 



Heb. xi. 18. 

Acts vii. 14 

Heb. xi. 21. 

Heb. xi. 22. 

Heb. xi. 23—27. Acts vii. 20—29. 
$ Mark xii. 26. Acts vii. 31, 32. Heb. 
( Xi. 16. 

Heb. xi. 28. 

1 Cor. x. 2. Heb. xi. 29. 

Heb. xii. 18—20. 
J Matt. xix. 18, 19. Markx. 19. Luke 
( xviii. 20. Rom. xiii. 9. James ii. 2. 

| Luke ii. 23. 

Matt viii. 4. Mark 1. 44. Luke v. 14. 

Matt. v. 33. 

Matt. v. 43. Gal. v. 14. 

I Cor. x. 6. 

Heb. iii. 16, 17. Jude verse 5. 

1 Cor. x. 9. 

2 Pet. ii. 15, 16. Jude verse 11. 

1 Cor. ix. 13. 

Matt. v. 31. Mark x: 4. Luke xvi. 28. 

Heb. xi. 31. James ii. 25. 

Heb. xi. 30. 

Acts xiii. 20. Heb. xi. 32. 

Acts xiii. 21. 

Acts xiii. 22. 

James v. 17, 18 

Heb. v. 4. 

2 Pet iii. 8. 
James iv. 13, 14 
John vii. 38 
Mark ix. 44. 
Matt xi. 29. 

1 Cor. iv. ia 

Heb. xi. 34. 

Matt xxiv. 15, Mark xlii. 14. 

I Cor. xv. 55. 

Heb. xiii. 15. 

Acts vii. 42, 43. 



Concerning the class of quotations contained in the pre- 
ceding table, it has been remarked, that when the inspi- 
red writers quote a passage from the Old Testament, 
merely in the way of allusion, it is enough that the words 
which they borrow, emphatically express their own mean- 
ing. It is not necessary that they be precisely the same 
with those of the passage alluded to, nor that they be there 
used, either of the same subject, or of a similar subject. 
Thus, Deut. xxx. 12 — 14, which was originally written 
concerning the law, is by Saint Paul accommodated to 
the Gospel, (Rom. x. 6 — 8,) with proper variations and 
explanations. 



108 



ON THE POETRY 



CHAPTER VIII. 



ON THE POETRY OP THE HEBEEWS. 



I. Nature of Hebrew Poetry. 

The diversity of style, evident in the different books of 
Scripture, sufficiently evinces which of them were written 
in prose, and which are poetical compositions ; though 
the nature of the Hebrew verse cannot now be exactly 
ascertained. The grand characteristic of Hebrew Poetry, 
is what Bishop Lowth terms Parallelism; that is, a cer- 
tain equality, resemblance, or relationship, between the 
members of each period : so that, in two lines or mem- 
bers of the same period, things shall answer to things, and 
words to words, as if fitted to each other by a kind of 
rule, or measure. Such is the general strain of Hebrew 
Poetry, instances of which occur in almost every part 
of the Old Testament, particularly in the ninety-sixth 
psalm. 

II. Gradations of the poetical parallelism. 

The poetical parallelism has much variety and many 
gradations ; which may be referred to four species, viz. : 
Parallel Lines Gradational, Parallel Lines Antithetic, 
Parallel Lines Synthetic, and Parallel Lines Introverted. 
An example or two of each of these shall be given, which 
will enable the attentive reader of our admirable authori- 
sed version readily to discover others as they arise : for, 
that version being strictly word for word after the origi- 
nal, the form and order of the original sentences are pre- 
served ; and this circumstance will account for its retain- 
ing so much of a poetical cast, notwithstanding it is exe- 
cuted in prose. 

1. Parallel Lines Gradational are those in which the 
second or responsive clause so diversifies the preceding 
clauses, as generally to rise above it ; sometimes by a de- 
scending scale, in the value of the related terms and pe- 
riods, but in all cases with a marked distinction of mean- 
ing. This species of parallelism is of most frequent oc- 
currence, particularly in the psalms and the prophecies of 
Isaiah. The following example is given from the evan- 
fellcal prophet, ch. lv. 6, 7. : 



OF THE HEBBEWS, 1()9 

Seek ye Jehovah [or, the Lord] while he may be found; 

Call ye upon him while he is near ; 

Let the wicked forsake his way, 

And the unrighteous man his thoughts : 

And let him return unto Jehovah, and he will compassionate him ; 

And unto our God for he aboundeth in forgiveness. 

"In the first line, men are invited to seek Jehovah, not knowing where 
he is, and on the bare intelligence that he may be found ; in the second 
line, having found Jehovah, they are encouraged to call upon him by the 
assurance that he is neak. In the third line, the wicked, the positive and 
presumptuous sinner, is warned to forsake his way, his habitual course of 
iniquity ; in the fourth line, the unrighteous, the negatively wicked, is 
called to renounce the very thought of sinning. While, in the last line, 
the appropriative and encouraging title, our God, is substituted for the aw- 
ful name Jehovah, and simple compassion is heightened into overflowing 
mercy and forgiveness." (Bp. Jebb's Sacred Literature, pp. 37, 38.) See 
further instances in Isa. li. 1. 47. Joel ii. 7. Psalm i. 1. xxi. 1, 2. and 
xziv. 3, 4. 

2. Parallel Lines Antithetic are those in which two 
lines correspond one with another, by an opposition of 
terms and sentiments ; when the second is contrasted 
with the first, sometimes in expressions, sometimes in 
sense only This is not confined to any particular form. 
Accordingly, the degrees of antithesis are various, from 
an exact contraposition of word to word, sentiment to 
sentiment, singulars to singulars, plurals to plurals, down 
to a general disparity, with something of a contrariety in 
the two propositions. Thus, Prov. ch. x. 1. 

A wise son rejoiceth his father : 

But a foolish son is the grief of his mother. 

Here every word has its opposite, the terms "father" and " mother" dc 
ing relatively opposite. 

3. Parallel Lines Constructive are those in which the 
parallelism consists only in the similar form of construc- 
tion ; wherein word does not answer to word, and sen- 
tence to sentence, as equivalent, or opposite : but there is 
a correspondence and equality, between the different pro- 
positions in respect of the shape and turn of the whole 
sentence, and of the constructive parts ; such as noun an- 
swering to noun, verb to verb, member to member, nega- 
tive to negative, interrogative to interrogative. This form 
of parallelism admits of great variety, the parallelism be- 
ing sometimes more, sometimes less exact, and some- 
times hardly at all apparent. Psalm xix. 7 — 11, will 
furnish a beautiful instance of this description of poetical 
parallelism. 

10 



HO ON THE POETRY 

The law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul ; 

The testimony of Jehovah is sure, making wise the simple 

The precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart : 

The commandment of Jehovah is clear, enlightening the eyes: 

The fear of Jehovah is pure, enduring forever; 

The judgments of Jehovah are truth, they are just altogether ; 

More desirable than gold, or than much fine gold, 

And sweeter than honey or the dropping of honey combs. 

4. Parallel Lines Introverted, or Introverted Parol 
lelisms, are stanzas so constructed, that whatever be the 
number of lines, the first line shall be parallel with the 
last ; the second with the penultimate, or last but one ; 
and so throughout, in an order that looks inward, or, to 
borrow a military phrase, from flanks to centre. Dr. 
Jebb, Bishop of Limerick, has illustrated this definition 
with numerous apposite examples, from which the follow- 
ing has been selected. 

"And it shall come to pass in that day; 

Jehovah shall make a gathering of his fruit 
From the flood of the river ; 
To the stream of Egypt : 
And ye shall be gleaned up, one by one , 
O ye sons of Israel. 
" And it shall come to pass in that day ; 

The great trumpet shall be sounded 

And those shall come, who were perishing in the land 

of Assyria ; 
And those who were dispersed in the land of Egypt ■ 
And they shall bow themselves down before Jehovah 
In the holy mountain, in Jerusalem. (Isa. xxvii. 12, 13.) 

" In these two stanzas, figuratively inthe first, and literally in the second, 
is predicted the return of the Jews from their several dispersions. The 
first line of each stanza is parallel with the sixth ; the second with the 
ffith ; and the third with the fourth. Also, on comparing the stanzas one 
with another, it is manifest, that they are constructed with the utmost pre- 
cision of mutual correspondence; clause harmonizing with clause, and 
line respectively with line; the first lint of the first stanza with the 
first line of the second, and so throughout." (Sacred Lit. pp. 54, 55.) 

Until very recently, the poetical parallelism was sup- 
posed to be confined to the Books of the Old Testament : 
but Bishop Jebb has shown that this characteristic of He- 
brew Poetry, also exists, to a considerable degree, in the 
New Testament. 

III. Different kinds of Hebrew Poetry. 

Bishop Lowth reduces the various productions of the 
Sacred Poets to the following classes. 

1. Prophetic Poetry , or that peculiar to the prophetic 
Books : for, though some parts of them are evidently in 
prose, yet the remainder are clearly poetical. 

2. Elegiac Poetry, of which many passages occur in 



OF THE HEBREWS. 



Ill 



the prophetical Books, in the Book of Job, in the Psalms, 
and especially in the Lamentations of Jeremiah. 

3. Didactic Poetry ', or that which delivers moral pre- 
cepts in elegant verses. To this class belongs the Book 
of Proverbs. 

4. Of Lyric Poetry , or that which is designed to be 
accompanied with music, numerous instances occur in the 
Old Testament, especially in the Book of Psalms. See 
also Exod. xv. Deut. xxxii. and Habakkuk iii. 

5. Of the Idyl, or short pastoral poem, the historical 
Psalms afford abundant instances. See particularly Psalms 
Ixxviii. cv. cvi. cxxxvi. and cxxxix: 

6. To Dramatic Poetry, Bishop Lowth refers the 
Book of Job, and the Song of Solomon : but this opinion 
has been questioned by later critics. Many of the Psalms 
however are a kind of dramatic ode, consisting of dia 
logues between persons sustaining certain characters. 

7. Acrostic, or Alphabetical Poems, are those which 
consist of twenty-two lines, or twenty-two systems of 
lines, periods, or stanzas, according to the number of let- 
ters of the Hebrew alphabet ; that is, the first line or first 
stanza begins with ft (aleph,) the second with ^ (bcth,) 
and so on. Twelve of these poems are found in the Old 
Testament, viz. Psalms xxv. xxxiv. xxxvii. cxi. cxii. cxix. 
and cxlv. Prov. xxxi. 10 — 31. Lamentations of Jere- 
miah i. ii. iii. iv. Some of these poems are perfectly, 
and others more or less, alphabetical. 



CHAPTER IX. 

ON HARMONIES OP SCRIPTURE. 



I. Occasion and Design of Harmonies. 

The several Books of the Holy Scriptures, having been 
written at different times, and on different occasions, ne- 
cessarily treat on a great variety of subjects, historical, 
doctrinal, moral, and prophetic. The sacred authors 
also, writing with different designs, have not always re- 
lated the same events in the same order ; some are intro- 
duced by anticipation ; and others again are related first, 
which should have been placed last. Hence, seeming 
contradictions have arisen, which have been eagerly sei- 



H£ OiN HARMONIES OF SCRIPTURE; 

zed by the adversaries of Christianity, in order to perplex 
the minds and shake the faith of those who may not be 
able to detect their sophistries. These contradictions, 
however, are not real: for they disappear as soon as they 
are brought to the test of candid examination. 

The manifest importance and advantage of comparing 
the sacred writers with each other, have induced many 
learned men to undertake the compilation of works, which, 
being designed to shew the perfect agreement of all parts 
of the sacred writings, are commonly termed Harmonies. 
Two classes of these principally claim to be noticed in 
this place, viz. : Harmonies of the Old, and Harmonies 
of the New Testament. 

II. Harmonies of the Old Testament. 

The design of these is, to dispose the historical, poeti- 
cal, and prophetical Books in Chronological Order, so 
that they may mutually explain and authenticate one an- 
other. Our learned countryman, Dr. Lightfoot, in the 
year 1647, published a " Chronicle," or Harmony of the 
Old Testament ; on the basis of which the Rev. George 
Townsend constructed " The Old Testament arranged 
in Historical and Chronological Order ;" but he has de- 
viated from and improved upon the plan of Lightfoot 
very materially. His work is noticed in the Appendix. 

III. Harmonies of the New Testament are of two 
sorts, viz. : 

1. Harmonies of the entire New Testament, in which 
not only are the four Gospels chronologically disposed, 
but the Epistles are also placed in order of time, and in- 
terspersed in the Acts of the Apostles. Mr. Townsend's 
" New Testament arranged in Chronological and Histori- 
cal Order" is the most complete work of this kind in the 
English language. 

2. Harmonies of the Gospels, in which the narratives, 
or memoirs, of the four evangelists, are digested in their 
proper chronological order. These are very numerous, 
according to the plans which their several authors pro- 
posed to themselves. Among foreign authors, the Latin 
Harmony of Chemnitz (or Chemnitius) is the most es- 
teemed : and among our British divines those of Drs. 
Doddridge and Macknight are most generally read, on 
account of their valuable expositions and commentaries, 



113 



BOOK II.— ON THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 



The Literary History of the Sacred volume having 
thus been considered, we now proceed to discuss its In- 
terpretation : and here the various subsidiary means 
for ascertaining the sense of the inspired writers, first de- 
mand attention. This is the subject of the first chapter 
of the present book : the remaining chapters will show 
in what manner the sense, when discovered, is to be com- 
municated, expounded, and applied. 



CHAPTER I. 



ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, OR HISTORICAL SENSE OP SCRIPTURE. 

Although, in every language, there are very many 
words, which admit of several meanings, yet in common 
speech there is only one true sense attached to any word, 
which sense is indicated by the connexion and series of 
the discourse, by the design of the speaker or writer, or 
by some other circumstances, unless any ambiguity be 
purposely intended. The same usage obtains in tho sa- 
cred writings. 

The Literal Sense of any place in Scripture is that 
which the words signify, or require in their natural and 
proper acceptation. Thus, in 

Gen. i. 1. God created the heavens and the earth, the words mean what 
they literally import, and must be interpreted according to the letter. So, 
in John x. 30., the words, I and the Father are one, so distinctly and une- 
quivocally assert the Deity of Christ, and his equality with God the Fa- 
ther, that it is difficult to conceive how any other than their proper and 
literal meaning could ever be given to them. 

The literal sense has been termed the Historical 
Sense, as conveying the meaning of the words and phra- 
ses used by a writer at a certain time. 

Thus, in Gen. x. 5. Isa. xi. 11. and many other passages of Scripture, 
the word isles or islands signifies every inhabited region, particularly all 
the Western Coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, and the seats of Japhet'g 
posterity, viz. : the northern parts of Asia, Asia Minor, and Europe, to- 
gether with some other regions. 



U4 ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 



Section L— Rules for investigating the Meaning of Words, generally. 

Since words compose sentences, from which the mean- 
ing of Scripture is to be collected, it is necessary that the 
individual meaning of such words be ascertained, before 
we proceed further to investigate the sense of Holy Writ. 
As the same method and the same principles of interpre- 
tation are common both to the sacred volume and to the 
productions of uninspired man, the signification of words 
in the Holy Scriptures must be sought precisely in the 
same way in which the meaning of words in other works 
usually is, or ought to be sought. And since no text of 
Scripture has more than one meaning, we must endea- 
vour to find out that one true sense precisely in the same 
manner as we would investigate the sense of any ancient 
writer ; and in that sense, when so ascertained, we ought 
to acquiesce, unless, by applying the just rules of inter- 
pretation, it can be shown that the meaning of the pas- 
sage has been mistaken, and that another is the only just, 
true, and critical sense of the place. The following gene- 
ral rules will be found useful for this purpose. 

1. Ascertain the notion affixed to a word by the persons in 
general, by whom the language either is now or formerly was 
spoken, and especially in the particular connexion in which 
such notion is affixed. 

The meaning of a word used by any writer, is the meaning affixed to it 
by those for whom he immediately wrote. For there is a kind of natural 
compact between those who write and those who speak a language; by 
which they are mutually bound to use words in a certain sense : he, 
therefore, who uses such words in a different signification, in a manner 
violates that compact, and is in danger of leading men into error, contra- 
ry to the design of God, "who will have all men to be saved, and to come 
unto the knowledge of the truth." (I Tim. ii. 4.) The received significa- 
tion of a word is to be retained, unless weighty and necessary reasons re- 
quire that it should be abandoned or neglected. 

We shall be justified in rejecting the received meaning of a word in the 
following cases, viz. : 

(1.) If such meaning clash with any doctrine clearly revealed in the 
Scriptures. 

(2.) If a certain passage require a different explanation from that which 
it appears to present : as Mai. iv. 5,6, compared with Luke. i. 17, and 
Matt xi. 14. 

2. Where a word has several significations in common use, 
that must be selected which best suits the passage in question, 
and which is consistent with an author's known character, 
sentiments, and situation, and the known circumstances under 
which he wrote. 



OR HISTORICAL &EKSE Of SCRIPTURE. X15 

For Instance, the word Blood, which on various accounts is very signi- 
ficant in the Sacred Writings, denotes — our natural descent from one 
common family, in Acts xvii. 26 ; — death, in Heb. xii. 4 ; the sufferings 
and death of Christ, considered as an atonement for the souls of sinners, 
in Rom. v. 9. and Eph. i. 7 ; and also as the procuring cause of our 
justification, in Rom. v. 9, and of our sanctificalion in Heb. ix. 14. 

3. Although the force of particular words can only be deriv- 
ed from etymology, yet too much confidence must not be 
placed in that frequently uncertain science. 

4. The distinctions between words, which are apparently 
synonymous, should be carefully examined and considered. 

In the 119th Psalm there are ten different words, pointing out the word 
of God ; viz. : Law, Way, Word, Statutes, Judgments, Commandments, 
Precepts, Testimonies, Righteousness, and Truth, or Faithfulness. Now 
all these words, though usually considered as synonymous, are not lite- 
Tally synonymous, but refer to some latent and distinguishing properties 
of the Divine Word, whose manifold excellencies and perfections are thus 
illustrated with much elegant variety of diction. 

5. The epithets introduced by the sacred writers are also to 
be carefully weighed and considered, as all of them have either 
a declarative or explanatory force, or serve to distinguish one 
thing from another, or unite these two characters together. 

6. General terms are used sometimes in their whole extent, 
and sometimes in a restricted sense, and whether they are to 
be understood in the one way, or in the other, must depend 
upon the scope, subject-matter, context, and parallel passages. 

The word, live, in 1 Thess. iii. 8, it is evident, both from the subject- 
matter and the context, must be taken in a restricted sense, and not as 
implying the apostle's natural life or existence. 



Section II.— Aids for Investigating the Meaning of Words in combination. 



§ 1.— Of the Scope, and Context. 

1. The Scope defined. 

A consideration of the Scope, or design which the in- 
spired author of any of the books of Scripture had in 
view, essentially facilitates the study of the Bible : be- 
cause, as every writer had some design in view, it is na- 
tural to conclude that he would express himself in terms 
adapted to his purpose. To be acquainted with the scope, 
therefore, is to understand the chief part of the book. 
The scope of an author is either general, or special ; by 
the former, we understand the design which he proposed 
to himself in writing his book; by the latter, we mean that 
design which he had in view, when writing particular sec- 
tions, or even smaller portions, of his book or treatise 



HQ ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 

II. Hints for ascertaining the Scope. 

The means, by which to ascertain the scope of a par- 
ticular section, or passage, being nearly the same with 
those which must be applied to the investigation of the 
general scope of a book, we shall briefly consider them 
together in the following observations. 

1. When the scope of a whole book, or of any particular por- 
tion of it, is expressly mentioned by the sacred writer, it should 
be carefully observed. 

The scope and end of the whole Bible collectively, is contained in Its 
manifold utility, which St. Paul expressly states in 2 Tim. iii. 16, 17, and 
also in Rom. xv. 4. In like manner, the author of Ecclesiastes announces 
at the beginning of his book, the subject he intends to discuss, viz: to show 
that all human affairs are vain, uncertain, frail and imperfect ; and such 
being the case, he proceeds to inquire, What profit hath a man of all his 
labour which he taketh under the sun? (Eccl. i. 2, 3.) And towards the 
close of the same book, (ch. xii. 8,) he repeats the same subject, the truth 
of which he had proved by experience. So, in the commencement of the 
book of Proverbs, Solomon distinctly announces their scope (ch. i. 1 — 1. 6.) 
St. John (xx. 31,) announces his object in writing his Gospel to be, that 
men might believe that Jesus is the Christ the Son of God, a?i d that be- 
lieving, they might have life through his name ; therefore all those dis- 
courses of our Lord, which are recorded almost exclusively by this evan- 
gelist, are to be perused with reference to this particular design. 

2. The scope of the sacred writer may be ascertained from 
the known occasion, upon which his book was written, and 
also from history. 

We know from history that many persons disseminated errors and de- 
fended Judaism, during the time of the apostles; who therefore found it 
necessary to oppose and refute such errors. This was the occasion of 
Saint Peter's second Epistle : and the circumstance will enable us to as- 
certain the scope of many of the other apostolic letters. 

3. The express conclusion, added by the writer at the end 
of an argument, demonstrates his general scope. 

Thus in Rom. iii. 28, after a long discussion, St. Paul adds this conclu- 
sion : — Therefore we conclude, that man is justified by faith without the 
deeds of the law : Hence we perceive with what design the whole pas- 
sage was written, and to which all the rest is to be referred. The conclu- 
sions interspersed through the epistles may easily be ascertained by means 
of the particles, " wherefore," " seeing that," " therefore," "then," &c. a» 
well as by the circumstances directly mentioned or referred to. 

II. Context denned. 

Another most important assistance, for investigating 
the meaning of words and phrases, is the consideration of 
the Context, or the comparison of the preceding and sub 
sequent parts of a discourse : as this alone, in many in- 
stances, can enable us to determine that signification which 
is best adapted to any word or passage. 

*1.) The Hebrew word *W2 (Be-sHeR) literally signifies the s/«*., by a 
metonomy, the flesh beneath the skin ; and by a synecdoche it denote* 
every animal ', especially man, considered as infirm or weak; a. In Jei. 



OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. Hf 

XVii. 5 — Cursed be the man that trusteth in man, and maketh flesh his 
arm; but that the word 7?esA is to be understood of maw only in Gen. vi. 12, 
will be evident on the slightest inspection of the context. All Jiesh had 
corrupted his way — that is all men had wholly departed from the rule of 
righteousness, or had made their way of life abominable throughout the 
world. 

(2.) There is a difference of opinion whether the address of Job's wife 
(Job ii. 9,) is to be understood in a good sense, as, Bless (or ascribe glory to) 
God and die ; or in a different signification, Curse God and die, as it is ren- 
dered in our authorized version. Circumstances show that the last is the 
proper meaning; because as yet Job had not sinned with his lips, and 
consequently his wife had no ground for charging him with indulging a 
vain opinion of his integrity. 

1. The context of a discourse in the Scriptures, may 
comprise either one verse, a few verses, entire periods, 
or sections, entire chapters, or whole books. Thus, 

(1.) If 1 Cor. x. 16, be the passage under examination, the preceding 
and subsequent parts of the epistle, which belong to it, are the eighth, 
ninth, and tenth chapters. 

(2.) If Isa. Ii. be the chapter in question, the reader must not (stop at the 
end of it, but continue his perusal to the 12th verse of ch. lii. ; for these 
together form one subject or argument of prediction, in which the pro- 
phet is announcing to his countrymen the certainty of their deliverance 
and return from the Babylonish captivity. This entire portion ought 
therefore to be read at once, in order to apprehend fully the prophet's 
meaning. 

(3.) In like manner, the verses from v. 13 of ch. lii. to the end of ch. liii. 
form a new and entire section relative to the sufferings of the Messiah. 
Here then is a wrong division of chapters, to which no regard should be 
paid in examining the context of a book. Ch. Ii. ought to include v. 12 
of ch.lii. and ch. lii. ought to commence at v. 13, and be continued to the 
end of ch. liii. 

(4.) In like manner, the first verse of the fourth chapter of St. Paul's 
Epistle to the Colossians ought to be joined to the third chapter: the 
slightest attention to this point will enable a diligent student to add nu- 
merous other examples. 

III. Hints for examining the Context. 

1. Investigate each word of every passage. 

2. Next, examine the entire passage with minute attention. 
Sometimes a single passage will require a whole chapter, or 
several of the preceding and following chapters, or even the 
entire book, to«be perused; and that not once, or twice, but 
several times. 

For instance, that otherwise difficult passage, Rom. ix. 18 — Therefore 
hath he mercy on whom he will have mercy, and whom he will he hardeneth, 
will become perfectly clear by a close examination of the context, begin- 
ning at verse 18, of chapter viii. and reading to the end of the eleventh 
chapter ; this portion of the epistle being most intimately connected. 

3. A verse, or passage must not be connected with a remote 
context, unless the latter agree better with it than a nearer 

context. 

Thus Rom. ii. 10, although it makes a good sense if connected with the 
preceding verse, makes a much better when joined with verse 12, (the 
intermediate verses being read parenthetically as in the authorized ver- 
sion ;) and this shows if. to be the true and proper context. 



218 ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 

4. Examine whether the writer continues his discourse, lest 
we suppose him to make a transition to another argument, 
when he in fact is prosecuting the same topic. 

Rom. v. 12. will furnish an illustration of this remark. From tha 
verse to the end of the chapter St. Paul produces a strong argument tc 
prove, that as all men stood in need of the grace of God in Christ to re- 
deem them from their sins, so this grace has been afforded equally to all, 
whether Jews or Gentiles. To perceive the full force, therefore, of the 
apostle's conclusion, we must read the continuation of his argument from 
verse 12. to the close of the chapter. 

5. The Parentheses which occur in the sacred writings 
should be particularly regarded : but no parenthesis should bs 
interposed without sufficient reason. 

Parentheses, being contrary to the genius and structure of the Hebrew 
language, are, comparatively, of rare occurrence in the Old Testament. 
But in the New Testament, they are frequent, especially in the writings 
of St. Paul; who, after making numerous digressions, (all of them appro- 
priate to, and illustrative of, his main subject,) returns to the topic which 
he had begun to discuss. 

Thus, in Rom. ii., verses 13, 14, and 15 are obviously parenthetical; be- 
cause the context evidently requires verses 12 and 16 to be read toge- 
ther. In Rom. v., verses 12, 18, 19 evidently form one continued sentence ; 
and all the intermediate verses are undoubtedly to be read as a paren- 
thesis, though they are not marked as such in the authorised translation. 
1 Cor. viii. 1, beginning with the words, Knowledge puffeth up, &c. to the 
end of the first clause in verse 4, is in like manner parenthetical. The 
connexion, therefore, of the first with the fourth verse is this: — Now, as 
touching things offered unto idols, we know that we have all knowledge. — 
We know that an idol is nothing, «fcc. 1 Cor. x. 29, latter clause, and verse 
30, are parenthetical ; as also are 2 Cor. ix. 9, 10, which are so printed in 
our version. A still more signal instance of parenthesis occurs in Eph. iii. 
where the first and fourteenth verses are connected, the twelve interme- 
diate verses, (2 to 13,) being parenthetical : as also is 1 Tim. i. verses 3 to 
17, inclusive. 

7. Where no connexion exists with the preceding and sub- 
sequent parts of a book, none should be sought. 

This observation applies solely to the Proverbs of Solomon, and chiefly 
to the tenth and following chapters; which form the second part of that 
book, and are composed of sentences, or proverbs, totally distinct and un- 
connected, though each individual precept is pregnant with the most 
weighty instruction. 



§ 2. — Analogy of Scripture, or Parallel Passages. 

1. Nature and importance of Parallel Passages. 

Parallel Passages are those which bear some degree of 
resemblance in sentiment, language, or idiom : and the 
comparison of them is a most important help for interpre- 
ting such parts of ScriptuFe as may appear to us obscure, 
or uncertain : for, on almost every subject, there will be 
found a multitude of phrases, that, when diligently colla- 
ted, will afford mutual illustration and support to each 
other ; the truth, which is more obscurely intimated in 



OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. \\Q 

one place, being expressed with greater precision in 
others. 

Parallelisms are either near, or remote : in the former 
case, the parallel passages are sought from the same wri- 
ter ; in the latter, from different writers. They are fur- 
ther termed adequate, when they affect the whole subject 
proposed in the text : and inadequate, when they affect it 
only in part : but the most usual division of the analogy 
of Scripture, or parallelisms, is into verbal, or parallel- 
isms of words ; and real, or parallelisms of things. 

1. A Verbal Parallelism, or Analogy, is that in which, 
on comparing two or more places together, the same words 
and phrases, the same mode of argument, the same me- 
thod of construction, and the same rhetorical figures, are 
respectively to be found. 

2. A Real Parallelism, or Analogy, is where the same 
event, or thing is related, the same doctrine is taught, or 
the same subject is discussed. But besides these two spe- 
cies of parallelisms, there is, 

3. A third, partaking of the nature of both, and which 
is of equal importance for understanding the Scriptures : 
This has been termed a Parallelism of Members : it con- 
sists chiefly in a certain equality resemblance, or parallel- 
ism, between the members of each period ; so that in two 
lines, or members of the same period, things shall answer 
to things, and words to words, as if fitted to each other by 
a kind of rule, or measure. 

The nature of this kind of parallelism, which is the 
grand characteristic of the poetical style of the Hebrews, 
has been already considered ; and its critical uses have 
been illustrated. See pp. 108 — 110, supra. 

A single example will suffice to show the importance 
of this help to the interpretation of the poetical parts of 
Scripture. 

Psal. lxxxiv. 5 — 7. is confessedly a difficult passage of 
Scripture, but by considering it as an introverted paral- 
lelism (the nature of which is defined in p. 110.) Bishop 
Jebb has thrown much light upon those verses. 

" Blessed is the man whose strength is in Thee : 
The passengers in whose heart are the ways, 
In the valley of Baca make it a spring ; 
The rain also filleth the pools; 
They go from strength to strength ; 
'5e shall appear before God in Zion. 



120 ox THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 

" Th^e first and sixth limes are here considered, at once, as constructively- 
parallel, and as affording a continuous sense : the intermediate four lines 
may be accounted parenthetical ; the second, constructively parallel with 
the fifth ; and the third with the fourth. The first line seems to contain 
the character of a confirmed proficient in religion, — his strength is in 
God; the sixth line, to describe his final beatification,— he shall appear 
before God in Zion. The intermediate quatrain may be regarded as 
descriptive of the intermediate course pursued by those who desire to be 
good and happy; they are passengers; but they know their destination, 
and they long for it ; at a distance from the temple, they are anxious to 
arrive there; the very highways to Jerusalem are in their heart. And 
what is the consequence 1 ? Affection smooths all difficulties : the parched 
and sandy desert becomes a rich well-watered valley ; and they cheer- 
fully advance from strength to strength; from one degree of virtuous pro- 
ficiency to another." (Sacred Literature, pp. 55, 56.) 

II. Rules for comparing Parallel Passages. 

1. Ascertain the primary meaning of the passage under con- 
sideration. 

In 1 Cor. iv. 5, we read, Judge nothing before tlie time, until the Lord 
cojyie, who will both bring to light the hidden things of darkness, and will 
make manifest the counsels of the hearts. Now here is a parallelism of 
members, but the fundamental meaning is, that God judges the counsels 
of men ; he therefore judges without respect of persons, and with unerring 
impartiality. The Apostle's design was, to show that it is impossible for 
men to perceive and judge the counsels of one another. 

2. Although the Sacred Scriptures, primarily coming from 
God, are perfectly consistent, and harmonize throughout ; yet, 
as they were secondarily written by different authors, on 
various topics, and in different styles, those books are in the 
first instance to be compared, which were composed by the 
same author, in the same language, and on a parallel subject. 

By comparing Psal. xxxviii. 10, with 1 Sam. xiv. 26, 27, (in which Jo- 
nathan, having taken some honey for his refreshment, is said to have had 
his eyes enlightened,) we shall readily apprehend the force of the psalm- 
ist's complaint, that the light of his eyes was gone from him ; for the eyes 
of a person in good health are so strong as to sparkle with the rays oi 
light that fall upon them; whereas, when the constitution is worn by 
long sickness, or broken by grief, the eyes lose their vigour and brilliancy, 
and, in cases of incipient blindness, the light gradually fails the eyes. 

3. Collect all those similar passages, in which the same 
forms of speech occur, and the same topics are proposed : and 
consider well, whether they are really parallel, that is, not 
only whether the same word, but also the same thing, answers 
together, in order to form a safe judgment concerning it. 

It often happens that one word has several distinct meanings, one of 
which obtains in one place, and one in another place. When, therefore, 
words of such various meanings present themselves, all those passages 
where they occur are not to be immediately considered as parallel, unless 
they have a similar power. Thus, if any one were to compare Jonah iv. 
10, (where mention is made of the gourd which came up in a night, and 
perished in a night, and which, in the original Hebrew, is termed the son 
of a night.) with 1 Thess. v. 5, where Christians are called, not children of 
the night, but children of the day, ft would be a spurious parallel. 

4. Where two parallel passages present themselves, the 
clearer and more copious place must be selected to iliustrata 
one that is more briefly and obscurely expressed. 



OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 



121 



5. No assistance is to be derived from similar passages, the 
sense of which is uncertain. 

The method here indicated is the only effectual way 
by which to ascertain parallel words and phrases, as well 
as parallelisms of things : it will indeed require a conside- 
rable portion of time and study, which every one may not 
perhaps be able to give ; but individuals thus circumstan 
ced may advantageously facilitate their researches by 
having recourse to editions of the Bible with parallel re- 
ferences, and to concordances, the most useful of which 
are specified in the Appendix. 



§ 3.— Of the Analogy of Faith. 

I. Analogy of Faith defined. 

The Analogy of Faith may be defined to be the con- 
stant and perpetual harmony of Scripture in the funda- 
mental points of faith and practice, deduced from those 
passages, in which they are discussed by the inspired pen- 
men, either directly, or expressly, and in clear, plain, and 
intelligible language. Or, more briefly, the analogy of 
faith may be defined to be that proportion, which the doc- 
trines of the Gospel bear to each other, or the close con- 
nexion between the truths of revealed religion. It is one 
of the most important aids for ascertaining the sense of 
Scripture. The Analogy of Faith is an expression bor- 
rowed from Saint Paul's Epistle to the Romans, (xii. 6,) 
where he exhorts those who prophesy in the church (that, 
is, those who exercise the office of authoritatively ex- 
pounding the Scriptures,) to prophesy according to the 
proportion, or, as the word is in the original, the Analogy 
of Faith. 

II. Hints for investigating the Analogy of Faith. 

1. Whenever any doctrine is manifest, either from the whole 
tenor of divine revelation, or from its scope, it must not be 
weakened or set aside by a few obscure passages. 

No truth is more certain in religion, or is more frequently asserted in 
the Bible than this, viz. : that God is good, not only to some individuals, but 
also towards all men. (See Psal. cxlv. 9. Ezek. xviil. 23. 32. John iii. 16. 
Tit. ii. 11, &c. &c.) If, therefore, any passages occur which at first sight 
appear to contradict the goodness of God, as, for instance, that He has 
created some persons that he might damn them, (as some have insinuated ;) 
in such case the very clear and certain doctrine relative to the goodness 
of God is not to be impugned, much less set aside, by these obscure places, 
which, on the contrary, ought to be illustrated by such passages as are 
more clear. Thus Prov. xvi. 4, has, by several eminent writers, been sup 



122 ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 

posed to refer to the predestination of the elect, and the reprobation of the 
wicked, but without any foundation. The passage, however, may be more 
correctly rendered, The Lord hath made all things to answer to themselves, 
or aptly to refer to one another, yea, even the wicked, for the evil day, that 
is, to be the executioner of evil to others ; on which account they are in 
Scripture termed the rod of Jehovah, (Isa. x. 5,) and his sword (Psal. xvii. 
13.) But there is no necessity for rejecting the received version, the plain 
and obvious sense of which is that there is nothing in the world which 
does not contribute to the glory- of God, and promote the accomplishment 
of his adorable designs. 

2. No doctrine can belong to the analogy of faith, which is 
founded on a single text. 

Every essential principle of religion is delivered in more than one place. 
Besides, single sentences are not to be detached from the places where 
they stand, but must be taken in connexion with the whole discourse. 

From disregard of this rule, the temporary direction of the apostle 
James (v. 14, 15,) has been perverted by the church of Rome, and ren- 
dered a permanent institution, (by her miscalled a sacrament, for it was 
never instituted by Jesus Christ,) from a mean of recovery, to a charm, 
when recovery is desperate, for the salvation of the soul. 

3. The whole system of revelation must be explained, so as 
to be consistent with itself— When two passages appear to be 
contradictory, if the sense of the one can be clearly ascer- 
tained, in such case that must regulate our interpretation of 
the other. 

4. An obscure, doubtful, ambiguous, or figurative text must 
never be interpreted in such a sense as to make it contradict a 
plain one. 

In explaining the Scriptures, consistency of sense and principles ought 
to be supported in all their several parts ; and if any one part be so in- 
terpreted as to clash with another, such interpretation cannot be justi- 
fied. Nor can it be otherwise corrected than by considering every doubt- 
ful or difficult text, first by itself, then with its context, and then by com- 
paring it with other passages of Scripture ; and thus bringing what may 
seem obscure into a consistency with what is plain and evident. 

The doctrine of transubstantiation, inculcated by the church of Rome, 
is founded on a strictly literal interpretation of figurative expressions, 
"This is my body," &c. (Matt. xxvi. 26, &c.) and (which has no relation 
to the supper,) "Eat my flesh, drink my blood," (John vi. 51—58.) But 
independently of this, we may further conclude that the sense put upon 
the words, " This is my body," by the church of Rome, cannot be the 
true one, being contrary to the express declaration of the. New Testament 
history, from which it is evident that our Lord is ascended into heaven, 
where he is to continue " till the time of the restitution of all things;" 
(Acts iii. 21,) that is, till his second coming to judgment. How then can 
his body be in ten thousand several places on earth at one and the 
same time? We may further add that, if the doctrine of transubstantia- 
tion be true, it will follow that our Saviour, when he instituted the Sacra- 
ment of the Lord's Supper, did actually eat his own flesh, and drink his 
own blood : a conclusion this, so obviously contradictory boUi to reason 
and to Scripture, that it is astonishing how any sensible and religious 
man can credit such a test. 

5. Such passages as are expressed with brevity are to be 
expounded by those, where the same doctrines or duties are 
expressed more largely and fully. 

i. The doctrine of justification, for instance, is briefly stated in Phil. iii. , 
but that momentuous doctrine is professedly discussed in the Epistle to 
the Galatians, and especially in that to the Romans: and according to the 



OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. J23 

tenor of these, particularly Rom. iii., all the other passages of Scripture 
that treat of justification, should be explained. 

ii. Even slight variations will frequently serve for the purpose of reci- 
procal illustration. Thus, the beatitudes, related in Luke vi., though deli- 
vered at another time, and in a different place, are the same with those 
delivered by Jesus Christ, in his sermon on the mount, and recorded in 
Matt. v. Being, however, epitomised by the former evangelist, they may 
be explained by the latter. 

6. " Where several doctrines of equal importance are pro- 
posed, and revealed with great clearness, we must be careful to 
give to each its full and equal weight." 

" Thus, that we are saved by the free grace of God, and through faith 
in Christ, is a doctrine too plainly affirmed by the sacred writers, to be set 
aside by any contravening position. (Eph. ii. 8.) But so, on the other 
hand, are the doctrines of repentance unto life, and of obedience unto 
salvation. (Acts iii. 19. Matt. xix. 17.) To set either of these truths at 
variance with the others, would be to frustrate the declared purpose of the 
Gospel, and to make it of none effect. Points thus clearly established, and 
from their very nature indispensable, must be made to correspond with 
each other : and the exposition, which best preserves them unimpaired 
and undiminished, will, in any case, be a safe interpretation, and most 
probably the true one. The analogy of faith will thus be kept entire, and 
will approve itself, in every respect, as becoming its Divine Author, and 
■worthy of all acceptation." (Bp. Vanmildert's Bampton Lectures, p. 294.) 

It must, however, be ever borne in mind, that, valua- 
ble as this aid is, it is to be used only in concurrence with 
those which have been discussed and illustrated in the pre- 
ceding sections. But, by a due attention to these princi- 
ples, accompanied by humility and sincerity, with a de 
sire to know and obey the revealed will of God, and, above 
all, with fervent supplication to the throne of Grace foi 
a blessing on his labours, the diligent inquirer after Scrip- 
ture truth, may confidently hope for success, and will be 
enabled to perceive the design of every portion of holy 
writ, its harmony with the rest, and the divine perfection 
of the whole. 



§ 4. Historical Circumstances. 

Historical Circumstances are an important help to 
the correct understanding of the sacred writers. Under 
this term are comprised : — 1. The Order; 2. The Title; 
3. The Author ; 4. The Date of each of the several books 
of Scripture; 5. The Place where it was written; 6. The 
Occasion upon which the several books were written ; 7. 
Ancient Sacred and Profane History ; 8. The Chrono- 
logy, or period of time embraced in the Scriptures gene- 
rally, and of each book in particular ; 9. Biblical Anti- 
quities ; (All these topics are adverted to, in the third ana 



124 0N THE LITERAL. GRAMMATICAL, 

fourth parts of this volume :) and, 10. The knowledge of 
the Affections, or feelings of the Sacred writers, and of 
the sentiments of the persons whom they addressed. 

I. A knowledge of the Order of the different Books, 
especially such as are historical, will more readily assist 
the student to discover the order of the different histories 
and other matters discussed in them, as well as to trace 
the divine economy towards mankind, under the Mosaic 
and Christian dispensations. 

II. The Titles are further worthy of notice, because 
some of them announce the chief subject of the book — as 
Genesis, the generations of heaven and earth — Exodus., 
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, &c. ; while 
other titles denote the churches, or particular persons 
for whose more immediate use some parts of scripture 
were composed, and thus elucidate particular passages. 

III. Where the name of the Author of a book is not 
distinctly stated, it may be collected from internal circum- 
stances ; as, his peculiar character, mode of thinking, and 
style of writing, as well as the incidental testimonies con- 
cerning himself, which his writings may contain. Thus, 

The expressions in 2 Pet. i. 18, and iii. 1. 15, prove Saint Peter to have 
been the author of that epistle; and a comparison of the Epistles and 
Gospel of St. John proves also that they are the production of one and the 
same author. 

IV. A knowledge of the Time when a book was writ- 
ten, also of the state of the Church at that time, will in- 
dicate the reason and propriety of things said in such 
book, as we'll as the author's scope, or intention in wri- 
ting it. Thus, 

(1.) The injunction in 1 Thess. v. 27, which may appear unnecessary, 
will be found to be a very proper one, when it is considered that that was 
the first epistle written by St. Paul; and that the apostle, knowing the 
plenitude of 'his divine commission, demands the same respect to be paid 
to his writings, which had been given to those of the ancient prophets, 
which, in all probability, were read in every assembly for Christian 
worship. 

(2.) When St. James wrote his epistle, the Christians were suffering a 
cruel persecution, in consequence of which many were not only declining 
in faith, love, and a holy life, but also abused the grace of God to licen- 
tiousness, boasting of a faith destitute of its appropriate fruits; viz. : who 
boasted of a bare assent to the doctrines of the Gospel, and boldly affirmed 
that this inoperative and dead faith was alone sufficient to obtain salva- 
tion. (Chapter ii. verse 17, et seq.~) Hence we may easily perceive, that 
the apostle's scope, was not to treat of the doctrine of justification ; but, 
the state of the church requiring it, to correct those errors in doctrine, 
and these sinful practices, ichich had crept into the church, end particit' 
ler!jf to expose that fundamental error of a dead faith unproductive of 



OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 



125 



good works. This observation further shows the true way of reconciling 
the supposed contradiction between the apostles Paul and James, concern- 
ing the doctrine of salvation by faith. 

V. The consideration of the Place where a Book 
was written, as well as of the nature of the place, and 
the customs which obtained there, is likewise of great im- 
portance. 

The first Psalm being written in Palestine, the comparison (in ver. 4,) of 
the ungodly to chaff driven away by the wind, will become more evident, 
when it is recollected that the threshing-floors in that country were not 
under cover, as those in our modern barns are, but that they were formed 
in the open air, without the walls of cities, and in lofty situations, in order 
that the wheat might be the more effectually separated from the chaff by 
the action of the wind. (See Hosea xiii. 3.) In like manner, the know- 
ledge of the nature of the Arabian desert, through which the children of 
Israel journeyed, is necessary to the correct understanding of many pas- 
sages in the books of Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, which were 
written in that desert. 

VI. A knowledge of the Occasion on which a book 

was written, will greatly help to the understanding of the 

Scriptures, particularly the Psalms, many of which have 

no title. The occasion in this case, must be sought from 

internal circumstances. 

Psalm xlii. was evidently written by David, when he was in circum- 
stances of the deepest affliction : but, if we compare it with the history of 
the conspiracy of Absalom, aided by Ahithopel, who had deserted the 
councils of his sovereign, as related in 2 Sam. xv., and also with the cha- 
racter of the country whither David fled, we shall have a key to the 
meaning of that psalm, which will elucidate it with equal beauty and 
propriety. 

VII. A knowledge of Sacred and Propane History 

is of great importance to the interpretation of the Bible, 
not only as it enables us to trace the fulfilment of pro- 
phecy, but also because it enables us to explain many 
customs and institutions which the Jews borrowed from 
neighbouring heathen nations, notwithstanding they were 
forbidden to have any intercourse with them. 

A judicious comparison of the notions that obtained among ancient, and 
comparatively uncultivated nations, with those entertained by the He- 
brews or Jews, will, from their similitude, enable us to enter more fully 
into the meaning of the sacred writers. Thus many pleasing illustrations 
of patriarchal life and manners may be obtained by comparing the wri- 
tings of Homer and Hesiod with the accounts given by Moses: such com- 
parisons are to be found in the best of the larger philological commentaries. 

In order, however, that we may correctly explain the 
manners, customs, or practices, referred to by the sacred 
writers at different times, it is necessary that we should 
investigate the laws, opinions, and principles of those 
nations among whom the Hebrews resided for a long time, 



126 ON TIIE LUEKAL, GRAMMATICAL, 

or with whom they held a close intercourse, and from 
whom it is probable they received some of them. 

The Hebrews, from their long residence in Egypt, seem to have derived 
some expressions and modes of thinking from their oppressors. A single 
example will suffice to illustrate this remark. Under the Jewish theo- 
cracy, the judges are represented as holy persons, and as sitting in the 
place of Jehovah. The Egyptians regarded their sovereigns in this light. 
Hence it has been conjectured, that the Israelites, just on their exit from 
Egypt, called their rulers gods, not only in poetry, but also in the com- 
mon language of their laws. See Exod. xxi. 6, where the Vf 0x6. judges is, 
in the original Hebrew, gods. 

VIII. Chronology, or the science of computing and 
adjusting periods of time, is of the greatest importance 
towards understanding the historical parts of the Bible, 
not only as it shows the order and connexion of the 
various events therein recorded, but likewise as it enables 
us to ascertain the accomplishment of many of the pro- 
phecies, and sometimes leads to the discovery and cor- 
rection of mistakes in numbers and dates, which have 
crept into particular texts. The chronology in the mar- 
gin of our larger English Bibles is called the Usserian 
Chronology, being founded on the Annales Veteris et Novi 
Testamenti of the eminently learned Archbishop Usher. 

IX. To all these are to be added a knowledge of Bib- 
lical Antiquities ; which include Geography, Gene- 
alogy, Natural History, and Philosophy, Learning and 
Philosophical Sects, Manners, Customs, and Private Life, 
of the Jews and other Nations mentioned in the Bible, 
A concise sketch of the principal topics comprised under 
this bead, is given in the Third Part of this manual. 

X. Lastly, in order to enter fully into the meaning of 
the sacred writers, especially of the New Testament, it is 
necessary that the reader in a manner identify himself 
with them, and invest himself with their Affections or 
feelings ; and also familiarize himself with the sentiments, 
&c. of those to whom the different books or epistles were 
addressed. 

This canon is of considerable importance, as well in the investigation 
of words and phrases, as in the interpretation of the sacred volume, and 
particularly of the prayers and imprecations related or contained therein. 
If the assistance, which may be derived from a careful study of the 
affections and feelings of the inspired writers, be disregarded or neglected, 
it will be scarcely possible to avoid erroneous expositions of the Scrip- 
tures. Daily observation and experience prove, how much of its energy 
and perspicuity familiar discourse derives from the affections of the 
speakers: and also that the same words, when pronounced under the in- 
fluence of different emotions convey very different meanings. 



OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. J 27 



§ 5. — Ancient Versions. 

Of the Ancient Versions of the Holy Scriptures, and 
their uses in sacred criticism, an account has already been 
given in pages 83 — 90. It may here be remarked, that, 
to those who are able to consult them, these versions 
afford a very valuable aid in the interpretation of the 
Bible : for they were the works of men, who enjoyed 
several advantages above the moderns, for understanding 
the original languages and the phraseology of Scripture. 
A single instance will illustrate the propriety of this 
remark. 

In the first promulgation of the Gospel to mankind, (Gen. iii. 15,) God 
said to the serpent that beguiled our first parents, And I will put enmity 
between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed, and IT, 
(that is, the seed of the woman, as our authorized translation rightly ex- 
pounds it,) shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel. But in 
the Anglo-Romish version, after the Latin vulgate, (which has ipsa con- 
teret caput tuum,) it is rendered, She shall bruise his head, as if a woman 
should do it: which the Romanists interpreting of the Virgin Mary, 
ascribe to her this great victory and triumph over sin and Satan, and are 
taught to say, in their addresses to her, " Adoro et benedico sanctissimoa 
pedes tuos, quibus antiqui serpentis caput calcasti ;" that is, " I adore and 
bless thy most holy feet, whereby thou hast bruised the head of the old 
Berpent." That this rendering of the Romanists is erroneous is proved by 
the Septuaglnt Greek version, by the Chaldee paraphrase, and by the 
Syriac version, all of which refer the pronoun IT to the seed of the woman, 
and not to the woman herself. (Bp. Beveridge's Works, vol. ii. p. 193. 
vol. ix. pp. 233, 234. Agier, Propheties concernant Jesus Christ etl'Eglise, 
pp. 243, 244.) 



§ 6. — On Commentators. 



I. Nature and Classes of Commentators. 

Commentators are writers of Books of Annotations on 
Scripture: they have been divided into the following 
classes, viz : 

1. Wholly spiritual, or figurative ;— this class'of expositors proceed on 
the principle, that the Scriptures are every where to be taken in the 
fullest sense of which they will admit:— a principle, of all others the 
most unsafe, and most calculated to mislead the student. 

2. Literal and Critical ; — those who apply themselves to explain the 
mere letter of the Bible. 

3. Wholly practical /—those who confine themselves to moral and doc- 
trinal observations : and, 

4. Those who unite critical, philological, and practical observations 

Expository writings may also be classed into Scholiasts^ 
or writers of short explanatory notes, who particularly 
aim at brevity ; — Commentators, or authors of a series of 



128 ON THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 

perpetual annotations, in which the train of their thoughts, 
and the coherence of their expressions, are pointed out ; — 
and Paraphrasts, who expound a sacred writer by ren- 
dering his whole discourse, as well as every expression, in 
equivalent terms. 

II. Use of Commentators, and in what manner .hey 
are to be consulted. 

The use of Commentators is two-fold : first, that we 
may acquire from them a method of interpreting the 
Scriptures correctly ; and second, that we may understand 
obscure and difficult passages. The best commentators 
only should be consulted ; and, in availing ourselves of 
their labours, the following hints will be found useful : 

1. We should take care that the reading- of commentators 
does not draw us away from studying the Scriptures for our- 
selves, from investigating their real meaning, and meditating 
on their important contents. 

This would be to frustrate the very design for which commentaries are 
written, namely, to facilitate our labours, to direct us aright where we 
are in danger of falling into error, to remove doubts and difficulties which 
we are ourselves unable to solve, to reconcile apparently contradictory 
passages, and, in short, to elucidate whatever is obscure or unintelligible 
to us. No commentators, therefore, should be consulted until we have 
previously investigated the sacred writings for ourselves, making use of 
every grammatical and historical help, comparing the scope, context, 
parallel passages, the analogy of faith, &c. : and even then, commentaries 
should be resorted to, only for the purpose of explaining what was not 
sufficiently clear, or of removing our doubts. This method of studying 
the sacred volume will, unquestionably, prove a slow one; but the stu- 
dent will proceed with certainty; and, if he have patience and resolution 
enough to persevere in it, he will ultimately attain greater proficiency in 
the knowledge of the Scriptures, than those who, disregarding this me- 
thod, shall have recourse wholly to assistances of other kinds. 

2. We should not inconsiderately assent to the interpretation 
of any expositor or commentator, or yield a blind and servile 
obedience to his authority. 

3. Where it does not appear that either ancient or modern 
interpreters had more knowledge than ourselves respecting 
particular passages ; and where they offer only conjectures,— 
in such cases their expositions ought to be subjected to a strict 
examination. If their reasons are then found to be valid, we 
should give our assent to them : but, on the contrary, if they 
prove to be false, improbable, and insufficient, they must be 
altogether rejected. 

4. Lastly, as there are some commentaries, which are either 
wholly compiled from the previous labours of others, or which 
contain observations extracted from their writings, if any thing 
appear confused and perplexed in such commentaries, the ori- 
ginal sources whence they were compiled must be referred to, 
and diligently consulted. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. ]29 

CHAPTER II. 

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 

Figurative language had its rise in the first ages of 
mankind : the scarcity of words occasioned them to be 
used for various purposes : and thus figurative terms, 
which constitute the beauty of language, arose from its 
poverty ; and it is still the same in all uncivilized nations. 
Figures, in general, may be described to be that language, 
which is prompted either by the imagination or by the 
passions. They are commonly divided into, 1. Tropes, 
or Figures of Words, which consist in the advantageous 
alteration of a word, or sentence, from its original and 
proper signification, to another meaning ; and, 2. Fi- 
gures of Thought, which suppose the words to be used 
in their literal and proper meaning, and the figure to 
consist in the turn of the thought ; as is the case in ex- 
clamations, apostrophes, and comparisons ; where, though 
we vary the words that are used, or translate them from 
one language into another, we may, nevertheless, still pre- 
serve the same figure in the thought. This distinction, 
however, is of no great use, as nothing can be built upon 
it in practice : neither is it always very clear. It is of 
little importance, whether we give to some particular 
mode of expression the name of a trope, or of a figure, 
provided we remember that figurative language always im- 
ports some colouring of the imagination, or some emotion 
«*f passion expressed in our style. 

Disregarding, therefore, the technical distinctions, which 
nave been introduced by rhetorical writers, we shall first 
offer some hints by which to ascertain and correctly inter- 
pret the tropes and figures occurring in the sacred wri- 
tings ; and in the following sections we shall notice the 
principal of them, with a few illustrative examples. 



Section I.— General Observations on the Interpretation of Tropes and 
Figures. 

In order to understand fully the figurative language of 
the Scriptures, it is requisite, first, to ascertain and de- 



130 



ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE 



termine what is really figurative, lest we take that to be 
literal which is figurative, as the disciples of our Lord and 
the Jews frequently did, or lest we pervert the literal mean- 
ing of words by a figurative interpretation ; and secondly, 
when we have ascertained what is really figurative, to in- 
terpret it correctly, and deliver its true sense. For this 
purpose the following hints will be found useful in addition 
to a consideration of historical circumstances, parallel 
passages, and the context. 

1. The literal meaning of words must be retained, more in 
the historical books of Scripture, than in those which are 
poetical 

We are not, therefore, to look for a figurative style in the historical 
books : and still less are historical narratives to be changed into allegories 
and parables, unless these are obviously apparent. Those expositors, 
therefore, violate this rule, who allegorize the history of the fall of man, 
and that of the prophet Jonah. 

2. The literal meaning of words is to be given up, if it be 
either improper, or involve an impossibility, or where words, 
properly taken, contain any thing contrary to the doctrinal or 
moral precepts delivered in other parts of Scripture. Thus, 

(1.) The expressions in Jer. i. 18, are therefore necessarily to be under- 
stood figuratively. So, the literal sense of Isa. i. 25, is equally inapplica- 
ble ; but in the following verse the prophet explains it in the proper 
words. 

(2.) In Psal. xviii. 2, God is termed, a rock, a fortress, a deliverer, a 
buckler, a horn of salvation, and a high tower; it is obvious that these 
predicates are metaphorically spoken of the Almighty. 

(3.) Matt. viii. 22 — " Let the dead bury their dead, cannot possibly be ap- 
plied to those who are really and naturally dead ; and consequently must 
be understood figuratively. " Leave those who are spiritually dead to 
perform the rites of burial for such as are naturally dead." 

(4.) The command of Jesus Christ, related in Matt, xviii. 8, 9, if inter- 
preted literally, is directly at variance with the sixth commandment, 
(Exod. xx. 13,) and must consequently be understood figuratively, 

(5.) Whatever is repugnant to natural reason, cannot be the true 
meaning of the Scriptures; for God is the original of natural truth, as 
well as of that which comes by particular revelation. No proposition, 
therefore, which is repugnant to the fundamental principles of reason, can 
be the sense of any part of the word of God; hence the words of Christ, 
This is my body, and, This is my blood, (Matt. xxvi. 26, 28,) are not to be 
understood in that sense which makes for the doctrine of transubstanti- 
ation ; because it is impossible that contradictions should be true; and we 
cannot be more certain that any thing is true, than we are that that doc- 
trine is false. 

(6.) To change day into night (Job xvii. 12,) is a moral impossibility, 
contrary to common sense, and must be a figurative expression. In Isa. 
i. 5, 6, the Jewish nation are described as being sorely stricken, or chas- 
tised, like a man mortally wounded, and destitute both of medicine as 
well as of the means of cure. That this description is figurative, is evi- 
dent from the context ; for in the two following verses the prophet deline- 
ates the condition of the Jews in literal terms. 

It is not, however, sufficient to know whether an expression 
be figurative or not, but, when this point is ascertained, another 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF BC'RIFTUllE. 13£ 

of equal importance presents itself; namely, to interpret meta- 

fhorical expressions, by corresponding and appropriate terms. 
n order to accomplish this object, it is necessary, 

3 That we inquire in what respects the thing compared, and 
that with which it is compared, respectively agjee, and also in 
what respects they have any affinity or resemblance. 

For, as a similitude is concealed in every metaphor, it is only by dili- 
gent study that it can be elicited, by carefully observing the points ol 
agreement between the proper, or literal, and the figurative meaning. 
For instance, the prophetic writers, and particularly Ezekiel, very fre- 
quently charge the Israelites with having committed adultery, and play- 
ed the harlot, and with deserting Jehovah, their husband. From the 
slightest inspection of these passages, it is evident that spiritual adultery, 
or idolatry, is intended. Now the origin of this metaphor is to be sousht 
from one and the same notion, in which there is an agreement between 
adultery and the worship paid by the Israelites to strange gods. That 
notion, or idea, is unfaithfulness ; by which, as a wife deceives her hus- 
band, so they are represented as deceiving God, and as violating their 
fidelity in forsaking him. 

4. Lastly, in explaining the figurative language of Scripture, 
care must be taken that we do not judge of the application of 
characters from modern usage; because the inhabitants of the 
East have very frequently attached a character to the idea ex- 
pressed, widely different from that which usually presents itself 
to our views. 

In Deut. xxxiii. 17, the glory of the tribe of Joseph is compared to the 
firstling of a bullock ; in like manner Amos (iv. 1.) compares the noble 
women of Israel to the kine of Bashan, and Hosea compares the Israelites 
to refractory kine that shake off the yoke. If we take these metaphors 
according to their present sense, we shall greatly err. The ox-tribe of 
animals, whose greatest beauty and strength lie in their horns, was held 
in very high honour among the ancient nations, and w as much esteemed 
on account of its aptitude for agricultural labour : hence, in the East, it 
is not reckoned disgraceful to be compared with these animals. In the 
comparison of the tribe of Joseph, to the firstling of a bullock, the point of 
resemblance is strength and power. In the comparison of the matrons of 
Samaria to the kine of Bashan, the point of resemblance is luxury and 
wantonness, flowing from their abundance. 



Section II.— On the Interpretation of the Metonymies occurring in 
Scripture. 

A metonymy is a trope, by which we substitute one 
appellation for another, as the cause for the effect, the 
effect for the cause, the subject for the adjunct or the ad- 
junct for the subject. 

A Metonymy of the cause is used in Scripture, when the person acting 
is put for the thing done, or the instrument by which a thing is done is 
put for the thing effected, or when a thing or action is put for the effect 
produced by that action. 

A Metonymy of the effect occurs, when the effect is put for tire efficient 
cause. 

A Metonymy of the subject is. when the subject is put for the adjunct, 



£32 INTERPRETATION OF THE 

that is, for some circumstance or appendage belonging to the subject 
when the thing or piace containing is put for the thing contained or 
placed ; when the possessor is put for the thing possessed ; when the 
object is put for the thing conversant about it ; or when the thing signified 
is put for its sign. 

A Metonymy of the adjunct is, when that which belongs to any thing 
serves to represent the thing itself. 



§ 1.-— Metonymy of the Cause. 

I. Frequently the person acting is put for the thing done. 

Thus, 

1 . Christ is put for his doctrine in Rom. xvi. 9. 

2. The Holy Spirit for hjs Effects and Operations, in 2 Cor. iii. 6. 
Psalm li. 10 ; Influences, in Luke xi. 13, and 1 Thess. v. 19 ; a Divine 
Power, reigning in the soul of the renewed man, in Luke i. 46, 47, com- 
pared with 1 Thess. v. 23 ; the Extraordinary Gifts of the Spirit, in 
2 Kings ii. 9. Dan. v. 12; and for revelations, visions, or ecstacies, whether 
really from the Holy Spirit, or pretended to be so, in Ezek. xxxvi. 1, 
2 Thess. ii. 2, and Rev. i. 10. 

3. Parents, or Ancestors, are put for their Posterity ; as in Gen. ix. 27. 
Exod. v. 2, and very many other passages of holy writ. 

4 The Writer, or Author, is put for his Book or Work : as in Luke xvi. 
29. xxiv. 27. Acts xv. 21, xxi. 21, and 2 Cor. iii. 15, in which passages 
Moses and the Prophets respectively mean the Mosaic and Prophetic 
writings. 

II. Sometimes the cause or instrument is put for the thing 
effected by it. Thus, 

1. The mouth, the lips, and the tongue, are respectively put for the 
speech, in Deut. xvii. 6, xix. 15. Matt, xviii. 16, &c. 

2. The mouth is also put for commandment in Gen. xlv. 21. (marginal 
rendering) (Heb. mouth.') Numb. iii. 16. 39, xx. 24, xxvii. 14. Deut. i. 
26. 43. and in Prov. v. 3. the palate (marginal rendering) is also put for 
speech. 

3. The throat is also put for loud speaking, in Isa. lviii. 1. Cry aloud, 
tlleb. with the throat.) 

4. The hand is ordinarily put for its writing, 1 Cor. xvi. 21. Col. iv. la 

5. The sword, famine, and pestilence, likewise respectively denote the 
effects of those scourges, as in Ezek. vii. 15. 



§ 2. — Metonymy of the Effect. 

III. Sometimes, on the contrary, the effect is put for the 
cause. 

Thus God is called Salvation, that is, the Author of it, Exod. xv. 2, our 
life and the length of our days, Deut.xxx. 20, our strength, Psalm xviii. 1. 
So Christ is termed Salvation, Isa. xlix. 6. Luke ii. 30. Life, John Xi. 25. 
and the Resurrection in the same place. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF fcCIHPlTJRE. J33 



§ 3.— Metonymy of the Subject. 

IV. Sometimes the subject is put for the adjunct, that is. 
for some circumstance or appendage belonging to, or depend- 
ing upon the subject. Thus, 

The heart is frequently used for the will and affection, Deut. iv. 29, vi. 
5, &c. : and for the understanding, Deut. iv. 39, vi. 6. Luke ii. 51, <&c. 

V. Sometimes the place or thing denotes that which is con- 
tained in such place or thing. 

The earth and the world are frequently put for the n en that dwell 
therein, as in Gen. vi. 11. Psalm xcvi. 13, &c. The Houses of Israel and 
Levi denote their several families, in Exod. ii. 1, and Ezek. iii. 1. 

VI. Sometimes the possessor of a thing is put for the thing 



Thus, Deut. ix. 1. To possess nations greater and mightier than thyself, 
means to possess the countries of the Gentiles. See also Psalm lxxix. 7, 
where Jacob means the land of the Israelites. 

VII. Frequently the object is put for that which is conversant 
about it. 

Thus glory and strength are put for the celebration ©f the divine glory 
and strength, in Psalm viii. 2 ; explained by Matt. xxi. 16 ; see also Psalm 
xcvi. 7, 8. 

VIII. Sometimes the thing signified is put for its sign. 

So, the strength cf God, in 1 Chron. xvi. 11, and Psalm cv. 4, is the ark, 
which was a sign and symbol of the divine presence and strength. 

IX. When an action is said to be done, the meaning fre- 
quently is, that it is declared, or permitted, or foretold, to be 
done : as in Gen. xli. 3. Jer. iv. 10. Matt. xvi. 9, &c. 

X. An action is said to be done, when the giving of an occa- 
sion for it is only intended. 

1 Kings xiv. 6. Jeroboam made Israel to sin, i. e. occasioned it by his 
example and command. See Acts i. 18, Rom. xiv. 15, and 1 Cor. vii. 16. 



§ 4.— Metonymy of the Adjunct, in which tne Adjunct is put for the 

Subject. 

XI. Sometimes the accident, or that which is additional to a 
thing, is put for its subject in kind. 

The abstract is put for the concrete. So gray hairs (Heb. hoariness or 
gray -head edness) in Gen. xlii. 38, denote me, who am now an old man 
and gray-headed ; abomination for an abominable thing, in Gen. xlvi. 34, 
and Luke xvi. 15. 

XII. Sometimes the thing contained is put for the thing 
containing it, and a thing deposited in a place, for the place 
itself. 

Thus Gen. xxviii. 22, means, this place where I have erected a pillar 
of stone, shall be God's house. Jo&h. xv. 19. Springs of water denote 
some portion of land, where there may be springs. Matt, ii. 11. Treasures 

are the cabinets or other vessels containing them. 

12 



]34 INTER PKETATION OF THE 

XIII. Time is likewise put for the thing's which are done or 
happen in time, as in 1 Chron. xii. 32. John xii. 27. 

XIV. In the Scriptures, things are sometimes named or de- 
scribed according to appearances, or to the opinion formed of 
them Dy men, and not as they are in their own nature. 

Thus Hananiah, the opponent of Jeremiah, is called a. prophet, not be- 
cause he was truly one, but was reputed to be one, Jer. xxviil. 1. 5. 10. 
In Ezek. xxi. 3, the righteous mean those who had the semblance of 
piety, but really were not righteous. And in Luke ii. 48, Joseph is called 
the Father of Christ, because he was reputed so to be. 

XV. Sometimes the action or affection, which is conversant 
about any object, or placed upon it, is put for the object itself. 

Thus, the senses are put for the objects perceived by them, as hearing 
for doctrine or speech, in Isa. xxviii. 9, (marg. rend.) and liii. 1, (Heb.) 
In John xii. 38, and Rom. x- 16, the Greek word euro 17, translated report, 
literally means hearing, and so it is rendered in Gal. iii. 2. 5. Hearing is 
also put for fame or rumour in Psalm cxii. 7. (Heb.) Ezek. vii. 26 
Obad. 1. Hab. iii. 2. (Heb.) Matt. iv. 24, xiv. 1, and xxiv. 6. Mark i. 28, 
and xiii. 7, &c. 

The eye, in the original of Numb. xi. 7. Lev. xiii. 55. Prov. xxiii. 31 
Ezek. i. 4, viii. 2, andx. 9, is put for colours which are seen by the eye. 

XVI. Sometimes the sisrn is put for the thing signified as in 
Gen. xlix. 10. Isa. xxii. 22. Matt. x. 34. 

XVII. Lastly, the names of things are often put for the 
things themselves, as in Psalm xx. 1, cxv. 1. Acts ii. 21. Rom. 
x. 13", &c. 



Section III. — On the Interpretation of Scripture Metaphors and 

Allegories. 

I. Nature and sources of Metaphors. 

A metaphor is a trope, by which a word is diverted 
from its proper and genuine signification to another mean- 
ing, for the sake of comparison, or because there is some 
analogy between the similitude, and the thing signified. 
Of all the figures of rhetoric, the metaphor is that which 
is most frequently employed, not only in the Scriptures, 
but likewise in every language : for, independently of the 
pleasure which it affords, it enriches the mind with two 
ideas at the same time, the truth and the similitude. To 
illustrate this definition : — In Deut. xxxii. 42, w T e read, I 
will make mine arrows drunk with blood, and my sword 
shall devour flesh. Here, the first metaphor is borrowed 
from excessive and intemperate drinking, to intimate the 
very great effusion of blood, and the exceeding greatness 
of the ruin and destruction which would befall the diso- 
bedient Israelites : the second metaphor is drawn from 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 



135 



the voracious appetite of a hungry beast, which in a 
lively manner presents to the mind the impossibility of 
their escaping the edge of the sword, when the wrath of 
God should be provoked. The foundation of them con- 
sists in a likeness, or similitude between the thing from 
which the metaphor is drawn, and that to which it is ap- 
plied. When this resemblance is exhibited in one, or in 
a few expressions, it is termed a simple metaphor. When 
it is pursued with a variety of expressions, or there is a 
continued assemblage of metaphor, it is called an alle- 
gory. When it is couched in a short sentence, obscure 
and ambiguous, it is called a riddle. If it be conveyed 
in a short saying only, it is a proverb ; and if the meta- 
phorical representation be delivered in the form of a 
history, it is a parable. When the resemblance is far- 
fetched, — as to see a voice, (Rev. i. 12,) it is termed a 
catackresis. This last-mentioned species of figure, how- 
ever, is of less frequent occurrence in the Bible than any 
of the preceding. Scripture Metaphors are variously de- 
rived from the works of nature — from the ordinary occu- 
pations and customs of life, as well as from such arts as 
were at that time practised ; — from sacred topics, that is, 
the Religion of the Hebrews, and things connected with 
it, and also from their Natural History. 

II. Nature of an Allegory. 

The Allegory is another branch of the figurative lan- 
guage of Scripture ; in which a foreign or distant mean- 
ing is concealed under the literal sense of the words. It 
differs from a metaphor, in that it is not confined to a 
word, but extends to a thought, or even to several thoughts. 
Of this species of figure Bishop Lowth has distinguished 
three kinds, viz. : 

1. The Allegory properly so called, and which he 
terms a continued metaphor ; — 2. The Parable, or simi- 
litude, which is discussed in the following section : — and, 
3. The Mystical Allegory, in which a double meaning 
is couched under the same words, or when the same pre- 
diction, according as it is differently interpreted, relates to 
different events, distant in time, and distinct in their na- 
ture. This case of allegory is exclusively derived from 
things sacred; and, while in those other^ forms of alle- 
gory, the exterior, or ostensible imagery, is fiction only, in 



136 



INTERPRETATION OF THE 



the mystical allegory each idea is equally agreeable to 
truth. As the mystical arid typical interpretation of 
Scripture is discussed in a subsequent part of this vo- 
lume, we shall, at present, consider allegory, or continued 
metaphor, properly and strictly so called. 

III. The following rules may assist us to determine tho 
meaning of an allegory. 

1. The proper or literal meaning of the words must be as- 
certained, before we attempt to explain an allegory. 

2. The design of the whole allegory must be investigated ; 
and the point of comparison must not be extended to all the 
circumstances of an allegory. 

For this purpose, the occasion that gave rise to it must be diligently ex- 
amined and considered, together with historical circumstances, as well as 
the nature of the thing spoken of, and also the scope and context of the 
whole passage, in which it occurs ; b-jcause the scope and interpretation 
of an allegory are frequently pointed out by some explanation that is 
subjoined. 

3. We must not explain one part literally, and another part 
figuratively. 

Thus the whole of 1 Cor. iii. 9 — 13, is allegorical : a comparison is there 
Instituted between the office of a teacher of religion, and that of a builder. 
Hence a Christian congregation is termed a building ; its ministers are 
the architects, some of whom lay the foundation on which others build ; 
some erect a superstructure of gold and silver ; others of wood, hay, and 
stubble. The sense concealed under the allegory is apparent: a Chris- 
tian congregation is instructed by teachers, some of whom communicate 
the first principles, others impart further knowledge: some deliver good 
and useful things, (the truth,) while others deliver useless things, (errone- 
ous doctrines, such as at that time prevailed in the Corinthian church.) 
That day (the great day of judgment) will declare what superstructure a 
man has raised; that is, whether what he has taught be good or bad. 
And as fire is the test of gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble, 
so the great day will be the test of every man's work. Though th~ whole 
of this passage is obviously allegorical, yet it is understood literally by 
the church of Rome, who has erected upon it her doctrine of the fire of 
purgatory. How contrary this doctrine is to every rule of right interore 
tatjon, is too plain to require any exposition. 



Section IV.— Interpretation of Scripture Parables. 

I. Nature of a Parable. 

The word Parable is of various import in Scripture, 
denoting a proverb, or short saying, a thing darkly, or 
figuratively expressed, and a similitude, or comparison. 
Strictly speaking, a parable is a similitude taken from 
things natural, in order to instruct us in things spiritual. 
This mode of instruction is of great antiquity, and an 
admirable means of conveying moral lessons : " by laying 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. ytf 

hold on the imagination, parable insinuates itself into the 
affections ; and, by the intercommunication of the facul- 
ties, the understanding is made to apprehend the truth 
which was proposed to the fancy." In a word, this 
kind of instruction seizes us by surprise, and carries with 
it a force and conviction which are almost irresistible. It 
is no wonder, therefore, that parables were made the 
vehicle of natural instruction in the most early times ; 
that the prophets, especially Ezekiel, availed themselves 
of the same impressive mode of conveying instruction or 
reproof; and that our Lord, following the same example, 
also adopted it for the same important purposes. 

II. For the interpretation of a parable, (to which the 
rules belonging to the allegory may indeed be applied,) 
the following hints will be found useful : 

1. The first excellence of a parable is, that it turns upon an 
image well known and applicable to the subject, the meaning 
of which is clear and definite : for this circumstance will give 
it that perspicuity which is essential to every species of alle- 
gory. 

How clearly this rule applies to the parables of our Lord, is obvious to 
every reader of the New Testament. It may suffice to mention his para- 
ble of the Ten Virgins (Matt. xxv. 1 — 13, ) which is a plain allusion to 
those things which were common at the Jewish marriages in those days. 
In like manner, the parables of the lamp, (Luke viii. 16,) of the sower and 
the seed, of the tares, of the mustard seed, of the leaven, of the net cast 
into the sea, all of which are related in Matt. xiii. as well as of the house- 
holder that planted a vineyard, and let it out to husbandmen, (Matt. xvi. 
33,) are all representations of usual and common occurrences, and such 
as the generality of our Saviour's hearers were daily conversant with, 
and they were-therefore selected by him as being the most interesting 
and affecting. 

2. Further, the image must be not only apt and familiar, but 
must also be elegant and beautiful in itself; and all its parts 
must be perspicuous and pertinent ; since it is the purpose of 
a parable, and especially of a poetic parable, not only to ex- 
plain more perfectly some proposition, but frequently to give it 
animation and splendour. 

Of all these excellencies there cannot be more perfect examples than 
the parables which have just been specified : to which we may add, the 
well known parables of Jotham, (Judges' ix. 7—15 ;) of Nathan, (2 Sam. 
xii. 1—4 ;) and of the woman of Tekoah, (2 Sam. xiv. 4—7.) 

3. As every parable has two senses, the literal, or external, 
and the mystical, or internal sense ; the literal sense must be 
first explained, in order that the correspondence between it 
and the mystical sense maybe the more readily perceived. 
And wherever words seem to be capable of different senses, 
particularly in the parables of Jesus Christ, we may with cer- 
tainty conclude that to be the true sense which lies most 

12* 



13b INTERPRETATION OF THE 

level to the apprehensions oi those to whom the parable was 
delivered. 

4. It is not necessary, in the interpretation of parables, tnat 
we should anxiously insist upon every single word ; nor ought 
we to expect too curious an adaptation or accommodation of 
it, in every part, to the spiritual meaning inculcated by it ; for 
many circumstances are introduced into parables, which are 
merely ornamental, and designed to make the similitude more 
pleasing and interesting. 

Inattention to this obvious rule has led many expositors into the most 
fanciful explanations: resemblances have been accumulated, which are 
for the most part futile, or at best, of little use, and manifestly not includ- 
ed in the scope of the parable. In the application of this rule, the two fol- 
lowing points are to be considered, viz. : 

(1.) Persons are not to be compared with persons, but things with 
things ; part is not to be compared with part, but the whole of the para- 
ble with itself. Thus, the similitude in Matt. xiii. 24, 25, is, not with the 
men there mentioned, but with the seed and the pearl : and the construc- 
tion is to be the same as in verses 31 and 33, where the progress of the 
Gospel is compared to the grain of mustard seed, and to leaven. 

(2.) In parables, it is not necessary that all the actions of men, mention- 
ed in them, should be just actions, that is to say, morally just and honest : 
for instance, the unjust steward (Luke xvi. 1 — 8,) is not proposed either 
to justify his dishonesty, or as an example to us in cheating his lord, (for 
that is merely ornamental, and introduced to fill up the story ;) but as on 
example of his care and prudence in providing for the future. 



Section V.— On Scripture Proverbs. 

I. Nature of Proverbs. 

Proverbs are concise and sententious common sayings, 
founded on a close observance of men and manners. 
They were greatly in use among the inhabitants of Pales- 
tine, in common with other oriental nations : and the 
teachers of mankind who had recourse to this mode 
of instruction, in order to render it the more agree- 
able, added to their precepts the graces of harmony ; and 
decorated them with metaphors, comparisons, allusions, 
and other elegant embellishments of style. 

II. Different kinds of Proverbs. 

Proverbs are divided into two classes, viz. : 1. Entire 
Sentences ; and 2. Proverbial Phrases, which by common 
usage are admitted into a sentence. 

1. Examples of Entire Proverbial Sentences occur in Gen. x. 9, and 
xxii. 14. 1 Sam. x. 12, and xxiv. 13. 2 Sam. v. 8, and xx. 18. Ezek. xvi 
44, and xviii. 2. Luke iv. 23. John iv. 37, and 2 Pet. ii. 22 ; in which pas- 
sages the inspired writers expressly state the sentences to have passed 
into proverbs. 

2. Examples of Proverbial Phrases, which indeed cannot be correctly- 
termed proverbs, but which have acquired their form and use, are to be 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE, lyy 

found in Deut. xxv. 4. 1 Kings xx. 11. 2 Chron. xxv. 9. Job. vi. 5, xiv, 
19, and xxviii. 18. Psal. xlii. 7, and lxii. 9. The Book of Proverbs like- 
wise contains many similar sentences; examples of which may also be 
seen in the Book of Ecclesiastes, in some of the Prophets, as well as in the 
New Testament. 

III. Interpretation of the Proverbs in the New Testa- 
ment. 

The Proverbs occurring in the New Testament are to 
be explained, partly by the aid of similar passages from 
the Old Testament, and partly from the ancient writings 
of the Jews ; whence it appears how much they were in 
use # among that people, and that they were applied by 
Christ and his apostles, agreeably to common usage. 



Section VI.— Concluding Observations on the Figurative Language of 
Scripture. 

Besiaes the figures discussed in the preceding sections, 
there are many others dispersed throughout the sacred 
Scriptures, the infinite superiority of which over all unin- 
spired compositions, they admirably elucidate. Two or 
three of these, from their importance and frequent occur- 
rence, claim to be noticed in this place. 

1. A Synecdoche is a trope in which, 1. The whole is put for 
2L2>art; 2. A part is put for the whole; 3. A certain number 
for an uncertain one ; 4. A general name for a particular one ; 
and, 5. Special words for general ones. 

[i.] The whole is sometimes put for apart: 

As, the world for the Roman empire, which was but a small, though 
very remarkable part of the. world, in Acts xxiv. 5, and Rev. iii. 10. The 
world for the earth which is a part of it, 2 Pet. iii. 6. Rom. i. 8. 1 John 
v. 19. 

[ii.] Sometimes the part is put for the whole. 

Thus in Gen. i. 5. 8. 13. 19. 23. 31, the evening and morning, being the 
principal parts of the day, are put for the entire day. So the soul com- 
prehends the entire man, Acts xxvii. 37. Tree, in Gen. iii. 8, is in the ori- 
ginal put for trees ; and man, in Gen. xlix. 6, for men. 

[iii.] A certain number for an uncertain number, as twice for several 
times, in Psal. lxii. 11. Ten, for many, in Gen. xxxi. 7; and seven for an 
indefinite number, in Gen. iv. 15, and very many other passages of Scrip- 
ture. 

[iv.] A general name is put for a particular one. 

As in Mark xvi. 15, where every creature means all mankind; as flesh 
also does in Gen. vi. 12. Psal. cxiv. 21. Isa. xl. 5, 6, lxvi. 23. Matt. xxiv. 
22. Luke iii. 6, and Rom. iii. 20. 

[v.] Sometimes special words, or particular names, are put for such as 
are general : 

Thus,, father is put for any ancestor in Psal. xxii. 4 ; father, for grand- 
father, in 2 Sam. ix. 7, and Dan. v. 1 1 . 18 ; father and mother for all supe- 
riors, in Exod. xx. 12. 

2. An Irony is a figure, in which we speak one thing and de- 



140 ON THE SPIRITUAL 

sign another, in order to give the greater force and vehemence 
to our meaning. An irony is distinguished from the real sen*- 
timents of the speaker, or writer, by the accent, the air, the 
extravagance of the praise, the character of the person, or the 
nature of the discourse. 

Instances of irony may be seen in 1 Kings xviii. 27, 1 Kings xxii. 15. Job 
xii. 2, and 1 Cor. iv. 8. 

Under this figure we may include the Sarcasm which may be defined 
to be an irony in its superlative keenness and asperity. See examples of 
this figure in Matt, xxvii. 29, and Mark xv. 32. 

3. Hyperbole, in its representation of things, or objects, either 
magnifies, or diminishes them beyond or below their proper 
limits 5 it is common in all languages, and is of frequent occur- 
rence in the Scripture. 

Thus, a great quantity, or number, is commonly expressed by the sand 
of the sea, (he dust of the earth, and the stars of heaven, Gen. xiii. 16, xli. 
49. Judges vii. 12. 1 Sam. xiii. 5. I Kings iv. 29. 2 Chron. i. 9. Jer. 
xv. 8. Heb. xi. 12. In like manner we meet, in Numb. xiii. 33, with 
smaller than grasshoppers, to denote extreme diminutiveness : 2 Sam. i. 
23 swifter than eagles to intimate extreme celerity. 



CHAPTER III. 

ON THQ SPIRITUAL INTERPRETATION OP SCRIPTTJHE. 

Section I.— General Observations on the Spiritual or Mystical Sense of 
Scripture. 

Where, besides the direct or immediate signication of 
a passage, whether literally or figuratively expressed, 
there is attached to it a more remote or hidden meaning, 
this is termed the spiritual or mystical sense : and this 
sense is founded not on a transfer of words from one sig- 
nification to another, but on the entire application of the 
matter itself to a different subject. Thus, 

Exod. xxx. 10, and Levit. xvi. What is here said concerning the high 
priest's entrance into the most holy place, on the day of atonement, we 
are taught by St. Paul to understand spiritually of the entrance of Jesus 
Christ into the presence of God, with his own blood. (Heb. ix. 7—20.) 

The spiritual sense of Scripture has frequently been 
divided into allegorical, typical, and parabolic. 

1. The Allegorical Sense is, when the Holy Scrip- 
tures, besides the literal sense, signify any thing belong- 
ing to faith, or spiritual doctrine. 

Such is the sense which is required rightly to understand Gal. iv. 24, in 
our version rendered, which things are an allegory ; literally, which things 
are allegorically spoken, or, which things are thus allegorized by me ; that 
is, under the veil of the literal sense they further contain a spiritual or 
mystical sense. 



INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 



141 



2. The Typical Sense is, when, under external objects, 
or prophetic visions, secret things are represented, whether 
present or future ; especially when certain transactions, 
recorded in the Old Testament, presignify, or shadow 
forth those related in the New Testament. 

Thus, in Psal. xcv. 11, the words, they should not enter into my rest, 
literally understood, signify the entrance of the Israelites into the Promised 
Land ; but, typically, the entering into rest, and the enjoyment of hea- 
ven, through the merits and mediation of Jesus Christ, as is largely shown 
in the third and fourth chapters of the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

3. The Parabolic Sense is, when, besides the plain and 
obvious meaning of the thing related, an occult or 
spiritual sense is intended. As this chiefly occurs in 
passages of a moral tendency, the parabolic has by some 
writers been termed the moral, or topological sense. 

Of this description is the parable of the talents : the design of which is 
to show that the duties which men are called to perform, are suited to 
♦heir situations, and the talents which they severally receive; that, 
whatever good a man possesses, he has received from God, as well as the 
ability to improve that good; and that the grace and temporal mercies 
of God are suited to the power which a man has of improving them. 
Thus, also, the injunction in Deut. xxv. 4, relative to muzzling the ox, 
while treading out the corn, is explained by St. Paul, with reference to 
the right of maintenance of ministers of the Gospel. (1 Cor. ix. 9 — 11.) 



Section II.— Rules for the Spiritual or Mystical Interpretation of Scripture. 

Some injudicious expositors having unduly preferred 
the spiritual, or mystical sense, to the literal sense, which 
is undoubtedly first in point of nattireas well as in order 
of signification ; others have been induced to conclude 
that no such interpretation is admissible. " A principle," 
however, "is not therefore to be rejected, because it has 
been abused : since human errors can never invalidate 
the truth of God." The following hints will be found 
useful for the spiritual interpretation of Scripture. 

In this department of sacred literature it may be consi- 
dered as an axiom, that the spiritual meaning of a passage 
is there only to be sought, where it is evident, from cer~ 
tain criteria, that such meaning was designed by the 
Holy Spirit. 

The criteria, by whicn to ascertain whether there is a 
latent spiritual meaning in any passage of Scripture, are 
two-fold : either they are seated in the text itself, or they 
are to be found in some other passages. 



142 °** THE SPIRITUAL 

1. Where these criteria are seated in the text, vestiges of a 
spiritual meaning' are discernible, when the things, which are 
affirmed concerning the person or thing immediately treated 
of, are so august and illustrious that they cannot in any way 
be applied to it, in the fullest sense of the words. 

The writings of the prophets, especially those of Isaiah, abound with 
Instances of this kind. Thus, in the 14th, 40th, 41st, and 49th chapters 
of that evangelical prophet, the return of the Jews from the Babylonish 
captivity is announced in the most lofty and magnificent terms. If we 
compare this description with the accounts actually given of their return 
to Palestine by Ezra and Nehemiah, we shall not find any thing corres- 
ponding with the events so long and so beautifully predicted by Isaiah. 
In this description, therefore, of their deliverance from captivity, we must 
look beyond it to that infinitely higher deliverance, which, in the fulness 
of time, was accomplished by Jesus Christ. 

2. Where the spiritual meaning of a text is latent, the Holy 
Spirit (under whose direction the sacred penman wrote) some- 
times clearly and expressly asserts, that one thing or person 
was divinely constituted or appointed to be a figure or symbol 
of another thing or person : in which case the indisputable 
testimony of eternal truth removes and cuts off every ground 
of doubt and uncertainty. 

For instance, if we compare Psalm ex. 4, with Heb. vii. 1, we shall find 
that Melchisedec was a type of Messiah, the great high priest and king. 
So Hugar and Sarah were types of the Jewish and Christian Churches. 
(Gal. iv. 22—24.) 

3. Sometimes, however, the mystical sense is intimated by 
the Holy Spirit in a more obscure manner; and, without exclu- 
ding the practice of sober and pious meditation, we are led by 
various intimations (which require very diligent observation 
and study) to the knowledge of the spiritual or mystical 
meaning. 

This chiefly occurs in the following cases : 

I. When the antitype is proposed under figurative names taken from 
the Old Testament. 

Thus, in 1 Cor. v. 7, Christ is called the paschal lamb ; — in 1 Cor. xv. 
45, he is called the last Adam ; the first Adam, therefore, was in some 
respect a type or figure of Christ. 

[ii.] When, by a manifest allusion of words and phrases, the inspired 
writers refer one thing to another. 

Thus, from Isa. ix. 4, which alludes to the victory obtained by Gideon 
(Judges vii. 22,) we learn that this represents the victory which Christ 
should obtain by the preaching of the Gospel, as Vitringa has largely 
shown on this passage. 

So, when St. Paul is arguing against the Jews from the types of Sarah, 
Hagar, Melchisedec, &c. he supposes that in these persons there were 
some things in which Christ and his church were delineated, and that 
these things were admitted by his opponents: otherwise, his arguments 
would be inconclusive. 



Section III. — On the interpretation of Types. 

I. Nature of a Type, and its different species. 

A type, in its primary and literal meaning, simply de- 



INTliiii'KLTATlUN OF SCRIPTURE. \±$ 

notes a rough draught, or less accurate model, from which 
a more perfect image is made : but, in the sacred or 
theological sense of the term, a type may be defined to be 
a symbol of something future and distant, or an example 
prepared and evidently designed by God to prefigure that 
future thing. What is thus prefigured is called the 
antitype. 

In the examination of the sacred writings three species 
of types present themselves to our notice, viz. : 

1. Legal Types, or those contained in the Mosaic law. 
On comparing the history and economy of Moses with 
the whole of the New Testament, it evidently appears, 
that the ritual law was typical of the Messiah and of 
Gospel blessings : and this point has been clearly esta- 
blished by the great apostle of the Gentiles, in his Epistle 
to the Hebrews. 

2. Prophetical Types are those by which the divinely 
inspired prophets prefigured or signified things either 
present or future, by means of external symbols. Of this 
description is the prophet Isaiah's going naked (that is, 
without his prophetic garment,) and barefoot, (Isa. xx. 2,) 
to prefigure the fatal destruction of the Egyptians and 
Ethiopians. 

3. Historical Types are the characters, actions, and 
fortunes of some eminent persons recorded in the Old 
Testament, so ordered by Divine Providence as to be 
exact prefigurations of the characters, actions, and for- 
tunes of future persons who should arise under the Gospel 
dispensation. 

Great caution is necess-ary in the interpretation of types; 
for unless we have the authority of the sacred writers 
themselves for it, we cannot conclude with certainty that 
this or that person or thing, which is mentioned in the 
Old Testament, is a type of Christ on account of the re- 
semblance which we may perceive between them : but 
we may admit it as probable. 

II. Hints for the interpretation of Types. 

1. There must be a fit application of the Type to the Anti- 
type 

This canon is of great importance : and inattention to it has led fan- 
ciful expositors into the most unfounded interpretations of holy writ. In 
further illustration of this rule, it may be remarked, 

[i.] The type itself must, in the first instance, be explained according to 
Its literal sense ; and if any part of it appear to be obscure, such obscurity 



144 ON THE INTERPRETATION 

must be removed : as in the histoiy of Jonah, who was swallowed by a 
great fish, and cast ashore on the third day. 

[ii.] The analogy between the thing prefiguring, and the thing prefi- 
gured must be soberly shown in all its parts. 

2. There is often more in the type than in the antitype. 

God designed one person or thing in the Old Testament to be a type or 
shadow of things to come, not in all things, but only in respect to some 
particular thing, or things; hence we find many things in the type, that 
are inapplicable to the antitype. The use of this canon is shown in the 
epistle to the Hebrews, in. which the ritual and sacrifices of the Old Tes- 
tament are fairly accommodated to Jesus Christ, the antitype, although 
there are many things in that priesthood which do not accord. Thus the 
priest was to offer sacrifice for his own sins, (Heb. v. 3) which is in no 
respect applicable to Christ. (Heb. vii. 27.) 

3. Frequently there is more in the antitype than in the type. 

The reason of this canon is the same as that of the preceding rule: for, 
as no single type can express the life and particular actions of Christ, 
there is necessarily more in the antitype than can be found in the type 
itself; so that one type must signify one thing, and another type another 
thing. 

4. In types and antitypes, an enallage or change sometimes 
takes place ; as when the thing prefigured assumes the name 
of the type or figure ; and, on the contrary, when the type of 
the thing represented assumes the name of the antitype. 

Of the first kind of enallage we have examples in Ezek. xxxiv. 23, 
xxxvii. 24, 25. and Hos. iii. 5; in which descriptions of Messiah's kingdom 
he is styled David; because as he was prefigured by David in many re- 
spects, so he was to descend from him. 

Of the second kind of enallage we have instances:—]. Prophetical 
Types, in which the name of a person or thing, properly agreeing with 
the antitype, and for which the type was proposed, is given to any one. 
as in Isa. vii. 3, and viii. 1 — 3. 2. In Historical Types ; as, when hang- 
ing was called in the Old Testament the curse of the Lord, because it was 
made a type of Christ, who was made a curse for our sins, as St. Paul 
argues in Gal. iii. 13. 

5 That we may not fall into extremes in the interpretation 
of types, we must, in every instance, proceed cautiously, " with 
fear and trembling," lest, we imagine mysteries to exist where 
none were ever intended. 

No mystical or typical sense, therefore, ought to be put upon a plain 
passage of Scripture, the meaning of which is obvious and natural; 
unless it be evident from some other part of Scripture that the place is to 
be understood in a double sense. When St. Paul says, (Gal. iii. 24. Col. 
ii. 17,) that the law was a schoolmaster to bring men to Christ, and a 
shadow of things to come, we must instantly acknowledge that the cere- 
monial law in general, was a type of the mysteries of the Gospel. 



CHAPTER IV 

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 

Prophecy, or the prediction of future events, is justly 
considered as the highest evidence that can be given of 



OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 145 

supernatural communion with the Deity. The force of 
the argument from prophecy, for proving the divine in- 
spiration of the sacred records, has already been exhibited ; 
and the cavils of objectors have been obviated. (See 
pp. 37 — 47, supra.) Difficulties, it is readily admitted, 
do exist in understanding the prophetic writings : but 
these are either owing to our ignorance of history, and of 
the Scriptures, or because the prophecies themselves are 
yet unfulfilled. The latter can only be understood when 
the events foretold have actually been accomplished : but 
the former class of difficulties may be removed in many, 
if not in all cases ; and the knowledge, sense, and mean- 
ing of the prophets may, in a considerable degree, be 
attained by prayer, reading, and meditation, and by com- 
paring Scripture with Scripture, especially with the 
writings of the New Testament, and particularly with the 
book of the Revelation. With this view, the following 
general rules will be found useful in investigating, first, 
the sense and meaning of the prophecies, and, secondly, 
their accomplishment. 

I. Rules for ascertaining the sense of the Prophetic 
Writings. 

1. As not any Prophecy of Scripture is of self-interpretation 
(2 Pet. i. 20,) o'r is its own interpreter, " the sense of the pro- 
phecy is to be sought in the events of the world, and in the 
harmony of the prophetic writings, rather than in the bare 
terms of any single prediction." 

In the consideration of this canon, the following circumstances should 
be carefully attended to. 

[i.] Consider well the times when the several prophets nourished, in 
what place and under what kings they uttered their predictions, the du- 
ration of their prophetic ministry, and their personal rank and condition, 
and, lastly, whatever can be known respecting their life and transac- 
tions. 

[ii.] As the prophets treat not only of past transactions and present 
occurrences, but also foretell future events, In order to understand them, 
we must diligently consult the histories of the following ages, both sacred 
and profane, and carefully see whether we can trace in them the fulfil- 
ment of any prophecy. 

[iii.] The words and phrases of a prophecy must be explained, where 
they are obscure ; if they be very intricate, every single word should be 
expounded; and, if the sense be involved in metaphorical and emblema- 
tic expressions, (as very frequently is the case,) these must be explained 
according to the principles already considered. 

[iv.] Similar prophecies of the same event must be carefully compared, 
in order to elucidate more clearly the sense of the sacred predictions. 

For instance, after having ascertained the subject of the prophet's dis- 
course and the sense of the words, Isa. lili. 5, (He was wounded, literally, 
pierced through, for our transgressions,) may be compared with Psal. 
xxii. 16, (They pierced my hands and my feet,) and with Zech. xii.*lO, 



140 0$ T *i^ INTiillPilO'ATiGS 

{They shall look on me whom they have pierced.) In thus paralleling the 
prophecies, regard must he had to the predictions of former prophets, 
•which are sometimes repeated with abridgment, or more distinctly ex- 
plained by others ; and also to the predictions of subsequent prophets, 
•who sometimes repeat, with greater clearness and precision, former pro- 
phecies, which had been more obscurely announced. 

2. In order to understand the prophets, great attention 
should be paid to the prophetic style, which is highly figura- 
tive, and particularly abounds in metaphorical and hyperbolical 
expressions. 

By images borrowed from the natural world, the prophets often under- 
stand something in the world politic. Thus, the sun. moon, stars, and 
heavenly bodies, denote kings, queens, rulers, and persons in great power ; 
and the increase of splendour in those luminaries denotes increase of 
prosperity, as in Isa. xxx. 26, and lx. 19. On fhe other hand, their dark- 
ening, setting, or falling, signifies a reverse of fortune, or the entire de- 
struction of the potentate or kingdom to which they refer. 

3. As the greater part of the prophetic writings was first 
composed in verse, and still retains much of the air and cast ot 
the original, an attention to the division of the lines, and to 
that peculiarity of Hebrew poetry by which the sense of one 
line oi couplet so frequently corresponds with another, will 
frequently lead to the meaning of many passages : one line of a 
couplet, or member of a sentence, being generally a commen- 
tary on the other. 

Of this rule we have an example in Isa. xxxiv. 6 : 

The Lord hath a sacrifice in Bozrah, 
And a great slaughter in the land of Idumea. 
Here, the metaphor in the first verse is expressed in the same terms in 

the next : the sacrifice in Bozrah means the great slaughter in the land 

of Idumea, of which Bozrah was the capital. 

4. Particular names are often put by the prophets for more 
general ones, in order that they may place the thing represented, 
as it were, before the eyes of their hearers : but in such passa- 
ges they are not to be understood literally. 

Thus, in Joel iii. 4, Tyre and Sidon, and all the coasts of Palestine, are 
put, by way of poetical description, for all the enemies of the Jews. 

5. The order of time is not always to be looked for in tb.3 
prophetic writings : for they frequently (particularly Jeremiah 
and Ezekiel) resume topics of which they have formerly 
treated, after other subjects have intervened, and again discuss 
them. 

6. The prophets often change both persons and tenses, some- 
times speaking in their own persons, at other times represent- 
ing God, his people, or their enemies, as respectively speaking, 
and without noticing the change of persons ; sometimes taking 
ttengs past or present for things future, to denote the certainty 
of the events. 

Isa. ix. 6, liii. throughout, lxiii. throughout, Zech. ix. 9, and Rev 
xviii. 2, to cite no other passages, may be adduced as illustrations of this 
remark. 

7- When the prophets received a commission to declare any 
thing, the message is sometimes expressed as if they had been 
appointed to do it themselves. 



OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 147 

Isa. vi. 9, 10, is merely a prediction of what the Jews would do : for 
"When the prophetic declaration was fulfilled, Jesus Christ quoted the pas- 
sage and explained its general sense in Matt. xiii. 15. 

8. As symbolic actions and prophetic visions greatly resem- 
ble parables, and were employed for the same purpose, viz. : 
more powerfully to instruct and engage the attention of the 

Eeople, they must be interpreted in the same manner as para- 
]es. (For which, see pp. 136 — 138, supra.) 

II. Observations on the Accomplishment of Scripture 
Prophecies. 

A prophecy is demonstrated to be fulfilled, when we 
can prove from unimpeachable authority, that the event 
has actually taken place, precisely according to the man- 
ner in which it was foretold. 

1. The same prophecies frequently have a double meaning, 
and refer to different events, the one near, the other remote , 
the one temporal, the other spiritual, or perhaps eternal. The 
prophets thus having several events in view, their expressions 
may be partly applicable to one, and partly to another, and it 
is not always easy to mark the transitions. What has not been 
fulfilled in the first, M r e must apply to the second ; and what 
has already been fulfilled, may often be considered as typical of 
what remains to be accomplished. « 

The following examples, out of many which might be offer- 
ed, will illustrate this rule: 

[i.] The second psalm is primarily an inauguration hymn, composed oy 
David, the anointed of Jehovah, when crowned with victory, and placed 
triumphant on the sacred hill ofSion. But, in Acts iv. 25, the inspired 
apostles with one voice declare it to be descriptive of the exaltation of 
the Messiah, and of the opposition raised against the Gospel, both by Jews 
and Gentiles. 

[ii.) Isa. xi. 6. — What is here said of the wolf dwelling with the lamb, 
&c, is understood as having its first completion in the reign of Hezekiah, 
when profound peace was enjoyed after the troubles caused by Senna- 
cherib ; but its second and full completion is under the Gospel, whose 
power in changing the hearts, tempers, and lives of the worst of men, is 
here foretold arid described by a singularly beautiful assemblage of ima- 
ges. Of this blessed power there has in every age of Christianity been a 
cloud of witnesses. 

Thus, it is evident that many prophecies must be taken in a 
double sense, in order to understand their full import ; and as 
this twofold application of them was adopted by our Lord and 
his apostles, it is a full authority for us to consider and apply 
them hi a similar way. 

2. Predictions, denouncing judgments to come, do not in 
themselves speak the absolute futurity of the event, but only 
declare what is to be expected by the persons to whom they 
arc made, and what will certainly come to pass, unless God 
in his mercy interpose between the threatening and the 
event. 

Of these conditional comminatory predictions we have examples in Jo- 
nah's preaching to the Ninevites (Jonah iii. 4—10,) and in Isaiah's denun- 



A 48 0N THE SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 

ciation of death to Hezekiah. (Isa. Xxxviii. I.) See also a similar in- 
stance in Jer. xxxviii. 14 — 23. 

III. Observations on the accomplishment of Prophe- 
cies concerning the Messiah in particular. 

1. Jesus Christ being the great subject and end of Scripture 
revelation, we ought every where to search for prophecies 
concerning him. 

We have the united testimony of Christ (John v. 39. Luke xxiv. 25 — 27. 
44,) and of an inspired apostle, (Acts x. 43 ; ) that he is the subject of 
Scripture prophecy. Whatever therefore is emphatically and cha- 
racteristically spoken of some other person, not called by his own name, 
in the psalms or prophetical books, so that each predicate can be fully 
demonstrated in no single subject of that or any other time, must be taken 
and said of the Messiah. Psalm xxii. and Isa. liii. may be adduced as an 
illustration of this rule. 

2. The interpretation of the word o f prophecy, made by 
Jesus Christ himself, and by his inspired apostles, is a rule and. 
key by which to interoret correctly the prophecies cited or al- 
luded to by them. 

The prophecy (in Isa. viii. 14,) that the Messiah would prove a stone of 
stumbling and a rock of offence, is more plainly repeated by Simeon* 
(Luke ii. 34,) and is shown to have been fulfilled by St. Paul (Rom. ix. 32, 
33,) and by St. Peter, (1 Pet. ii. 8;) and the sixteenth psalm is expressly 
applied to Jesus Christ by the latter of these apostles. (Acts ii. 25 — 31.) 

3. Where the prophets describe a golden age of felicity, they 
clearly foretell Gospel times. 

Many passages might be adduced from the prophetic writings in con- 
firmation of this rule. It will however suffice to adduce two instances 
from Isaiah, ch. ix. 2 — 7, and xi. I — 9. In the former of these passages, 
the peaceful kingdom of the Messiah is set forth, its extent and duration ; 
and in the latter, the singular peace and happiness which should then 
prevail, are delineated in imagery of unequalled beauty and energy. 

4. Things, foretold as universally or indefinitely to come to 
pass under the Gospel, are not to be understood,— as they respect 
the duty,— of all persons ; but,— as they respect the event,- 
only of God's people. 

The highly figurative expressions in Isa. ii. 4, xi. 6, and lxv. 25, are to 
be understood of the nature, design, and tendency of the Gospel, and what 
is the duty of all its professors, and what would actually take place in 
the Christian world, if all who profess the Christian doctrine did sincerely 
and cordially obey its dictates. 

5. As the ancient prophecies concerning the Messiah are of ' 
two kinds, some of them relating to his first coming to suffer, 
while the rest of them concern his second coming to advance 
his kingdom, and restore the Jews ; in all these prophecies, 
we must carefully distinguish between his first coming in hu- 
miliation to accomplish his mediatorial work on the cross, and 
his second coming in glory to judgment. 

In studying the prophetic writings, the two following 
cautions should uniformly be kept in vie%, viz. : 

I. That we do not apply passing events, as actually 
fulfilling particular prophecies. 



ON DOCTiUNAL LNTEitl'KLTATION. X4^ 

2. That we do not curiously pry beyond what is ex- 
pressly written, or describe, as fulfilled, prophecies which 
are yet future. What the Bible hath declared, that toe 
may without hesitation declare: beyond this all is mere 
vague conjecture. 



CHAPTER V 

ON THE DOCTRINAL, MORAL, AND PRACTICAL INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 

Section I. — On the Doctrinal Interpretation of Scripture. 

As the Holy Scriptures contain the revealed will of 
God to man, they not only offer to our attention the most 
interesting histories and characters for our instruction by 
example, and the most sublime prophecies for the confir- 
mation of our faith, but they likewise present, to our se- 
rious study, doctrinal truths of the utmost importance. 
Some of these occur in the historical, poetical, and pro- 
phetical parts of the Bible : but they' are chiefly to be 
found in the apostolic epistles, which, though originally 
designed for the edification of particular Christian churches 
or individuals, are nevertheless of general application, 
and designed for the guidance of the universal church 
in every age. For many of the fundamental doctrines of 
Christianity are more copiously treated in the epistles, 
which are not so particularly explained in the gospels : 
and as the authors of the several epistles, wrote under the 
same divine inspiration as the evangelists, the epistles and 
gospels must be taken together, to complete the rule of 
Christian faith. The doctrinal interpretation, therefore, 
of the sacred writings is of paramount consequence : as 
by this means we are enabled to acquire a correct and 
saving knowledge of the will of God concerning us. In 
the prosecution of this important branch of sacred litera- 
ture, the following observations are offered to the attention 
of the student : 

1. The meaning of the sacred writings is not to be deter- 
mined according to modern notions and systems : but we must 
endeavour to carry ourselves back to the very times and places 
in which they were written, and realize the ideas and modes 
of thinking of the sacred writers. 
L3* 



150 02s THE ©OCTllUSAL INTERPRETATION 

This rule is of the utmost importance for understanding the Scriptures , 
but is too commonly neglected by commentators and expositors, who, 
when applying themselves to the explanation of the sacred writings, have 
a preconceived system of doctrine, which they seek in the Bible, and to 
which they refer every passage of Scripture. Thus they rather draw the 
Scriptures to their system of doctrine, than bring their doctrines to the 
standard of Scripture; a mode of interpretation which is altogether un- 
just, and utterly useless in the attainment of truth. The only way by 
which to understand the meaning of the sacred writers, and to distinguish 
between true and false doctrines, is, to lay aside all preconceived modern 
notions and systems, and to carry ourselves back to the very times and 
places in which the prophets and apostles wrote. In perusing the Bible, 
therefore, this rule must be most carefully attended to. It is only an un- 
biassed mind that can attain the true and genuine sense of Scripture. 

2. In order to understand any doctrinal book or passage of 
Scripture, we must attend to the controversies which were 
agitated at that time, and to which the sacred writers allude: 
for a key to the apostolic epistles is not to be sought in the 
modern controversies that divide Christians, and which were 
not only unknown but, also, were not in existence at that 
time. 

The controversies, which were discussed in the age of -the apostles, are 
to be ascertained, partly from their writings, partly from the existing 
monuments of the primitive Christians, and likewise from some passages 
in the writings of the Rabbins. The most important passages of this kind 
are to be found in almost all the larger commentators. 

3. The doctrinal books of Scripture, for instance, the Epis- 
tles, are not to be perused in detached portions or sections ; 
but they .should be read through at once, with a close attention 
to the scope and tenor of the discourse, regardless of the divi- 
sions into chapters and verses, precisely in the same manner in 
which we would peruse the letters of Cicero, Pliny, or other 
ancient writers. 

Want of attention to the general scope and design of the doctrinal parts 
of Scripture, particularly of the epistles, has been the source of many and 
great errors : the reading, however, which is here recommended, should 
not be cursory or casual, but frequent and diligent ; and the Epistles should 
be repeatedly perused, until we become intimately acquainted with their 
contents. On the investigation of the Scope, see p. 1 16, supra. 

4. Where any doctrine is to be deduced from the Scriptures, 
it will be collected better, and with more precision, from those 
places in which it is professedly discussed, than from those in 
which it is noticed only incidentally, or by way of inference. 

For instance, in the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians, the doctrine 
of justification by faith is fully treated: and in those to the Ephesians 
and Colossians, the calling of the Gentiles and the abrogation of the 
ceremonial law are particularly illustrated. These must therefore be 
diligently compared together, in order to deduce those doctrines correctly. 

5. Distinguish figurative expressions from such as are proper 
and literal ; and when easy and natural interpretations offer 
themselves, avoid all those interpretations which deduce asto- 
nishing and incredible doctrines. 

6. It is of great importance to the understanding of the doc- 
trinal books of the New Testament, to attend to and dis- 
tinctly note the transitions of persons which frequently occur, 
especially in Saint Paul's Epistles. 



OF THE BGMPTU RES. \ 5 1 

The pronouns /, We, and You, are used by the apostles in such a variety 
of applications, that the understanding of their true meaning is often a 
key to many difficult passages. Thus, by the pronoun 2", Saint Paul some- 
times means himself, sometimes any Christian ; sometimes a Jew ; and 
sometimes any man, &c. To discover these transitions requires great at- 
tention to the apostle's scope and argument ; and yet, if it be neglected or 
overlooked, it will cause the reader greatly to mistake and misunderstand 
his meaning, and wiil also render the sense very perplexed. Mr. Locke, 
and Dr. Macknight, in their elaborate works on the Epistles, are particu 
larly useful in pointing out these various transitions of persons and sub- 
jects. 

7. No article of faith can be established from metaphors, 
parables, or single obscure and figurative texts. 

Instead of deriving our knowledge of Christianity from parables and 
figurative passages, an intimate acquaintance with the doctrines t of the 
Gospel is necessary, in order to be capable of interpreting them. The beau- 
tiful parable of the man who fell among thieves, (Luke x. 30 — 37,) is evi- 
dently intended to influence the Jews to be benevolent and kind like the 
good Samaritan, and nothing more. And yet, regardless of every princi- 
ple of sound interpretation, that parable has by some writers been con- 
sidered as a representation of Adam's fall, and of man's recovery, through 
the interposition and love of Jesus Christ ! 



Section II. — On the Moral Interpretation of Scripture. 

The moral Parts of Scripture are replete with the most 
important instructions for the government of life. They 
are to be interpreted precisely in the same manner as ail 
other moral writings ; regard being had to the peculiar 
circumstances of the sacred writers, viz. : the age in 
which they wrote, the nation to which they belonged, their 
style, genius, &c. In the examination of the moral parts 
of Scripture, the following more particular rules will be 
found useful. 

1. Moral propositions or discourses are not to be urged too 
far, but must be understood with a certain degree of latitude, 
and with various limitations. 

For want of attending to this canon, how many moral truths have 
been pushed to an extent, which causes them altogether to fail of the ef- 
fect they were designed to produce ! It is not to be denied that universal 
propositions may be offered : such are frequent in the Scriptures as well 
as in profane writers, and also in common life ; but it is in explaining the 
expressions by which they are conveyed, that just limits ought to be ap- 
plied, to prevent them from being urged too far. The nature of the thing, 
and various other circumstances, will always afford a criterion by which 
to understand moral propositions with the requisite limitations. 

2. Principals include their accessaries, that is, whatever ap- 
proaches or comes near to them, or has any tendency to them. 

Thus, where any sin is forbidden, we must be careful not only to avoid 
it, but also every thing of a similar nature, and whatever may prove an 
occasion of it, or imply our consent to it in others : and we must endea- 
vour to dissuade or restrain others from it. Compare Matt. v. 21—31. 
1 Thess. v. 22. Jude 23. Ephes. v. 11. 1 Cor. viii. 13. Levit. xix. 17 



152 0N THE iNTBaPKBTAarKW of 

James v. 19, 20. So, where any duty is enjoined, all means and facili- 
ties, enabling either ourselves or others to discharge it, according to our 
respective places, capacities, or opportunities, are likewise enjoined. 

3. Negatives include affirmatives, and affirmatives include 
negatives : in other words, where any duty is enjoined, the 
contrary sin is forbidden ; and where any sin is forbidden, the 
contrary duty is enjoined. 

Thus, in Deut. vi. 13, where we are commanded to serve God, we are 
forbidden to serve any other. Therefore, in Matt. iv. 10, it is said, him 
only shait thou serve. 

4. Negatives are binding at all times, but not affirmatives: 
that is, we must never do that which is forbidden, though good 
may ultimately come from it. (Rom. iii. 8.) We must not 
speak wickedly for God. (Job xiii. 7.) 

5. "When an action is either required or commended, or any 
promise is annexed to its performance ; such action is supposed 
to be done from proper motives and in a proper manner. 

The giving of alms may be mentioned as an instance; which, if done 
from ostentatious motives, we are assured, is displeasing in the sight of 
God. Compare Matt. vi. 1.— 4. 

6. When the favour of God, or salvation, is promised to any 
deed or duty, all the other duties of religion are supposed to be 
rightly performed. 

7. When a certain state or condition is pronounced blessed, 
or any promise is annexed to it, a suitable disposition of mind 
is supposed to prevail. 

Thus, when the poor or afflicted are pronounced to be blessed, it is be- 
cause such persons, being poor and afflicted, are free from the sins usually 
attendant on unsanctified prosperity, and because they are, on the con- 
trary, more humble and more obedient to God. If, however, they be not 
the characters described, (as unquestionably there are many to whom the 
characters do not apply,) the promise in that case does not belong to them. 
Vice versa, when any state is pronounced to be wretched, it is on account 
of the sins or vices which generally attend it. 

8. Some precepts of moral prudence are given in the Scrip- 
tures, which nevertheless admit of exceptions, on account of 
some duties of benevolence or piety that ought to prepon- 
derate. 

We may illustrate this rule by the often -repeated counsels of Solomon 
respecting becoming surety for another. (See Prov. vi. 1, 2, xi. 15, xvii. 
18, and xx. 16.) In these passages he does not condemn suretyship, which, 
in many cases, is not only lawful, but, in same instances, even an act of 
justice, prudence, and charity ; but Solomon forbids his disciple to become 
surety rashly, without considering for whom, or how far he binds him- 
self, or how he could discharge the debt, if occasion should require it. 



Section III. — On the Interpretation of the Promises and Threatenings of 
Scripture. 

1. Distinction between Promises and Threatenings, 
A promise, in the Scriptural sense of the term, is » 



PROMISES OF SCRIPTUKE. 153 

declaration or assurance of the divine will, in which God 
signifies what particular blessings or good things he will 
freely bestow, as well as the evils which he will remove. 
The promises, therefore, differ from the threatenings of 
God, inasmuch as the former are declarations concerning 
good, while the latter are denunciations of evil only : at 
the same time it is to be observed, that promises seem to 
include threats, because, being in their very nature condi- 
tional, they imply the bestowment of the blessing pro- 
mised, only on the condition being performed, which 
blessing is tacitly threatened to be withheld on non-com- 
pliance with such condition. Further, promises differ 
from the commands of God, because the latter are signifi- 
cations of the divine will concerning a duty enjoined to 
be performed, while promises relate to mercy to be 
received. 

There are four classes of promises mentioned in the 
Scriptures, particularly in the New Testament ; viz. : 
1. Promises relating to the Messiah ; 2. Promises rela- 
ting to the church ; 3. Promises of blessings, both tem- 
poral and spiritual, to the pious ; and, 4. Promises 
encouraging to the exercise of the several graces and 
duties that compose the Christian character. The two 
first of these classes, indeed, are many of them predictions 
as well as promises ; consequently the same observations 
will apply to them, as are stated for the interpretation of 
Scripture prophecies : but in regard to those promises 
which are directed to particular persons, or to the per- 
formance of particular duties, the following remarks are 
offered to the attention of the reader. 

1. "We must receive God's promises in such wise as they 
be generally set forth in the Holy Scripture." (Art. xvii.) 

To us the promises of God arc general and conditional : if, therefore, 
they be not fulfilled towards us, we may rest assured that the fault does 
not rest with Him, " who cannot lie," but with ourselves, who have fail- 
ed in complying with the conditions, either tacitly, or expressly, annexed 
to them. 

2. Such promises as were made in one case, may be applied 
in other cases of the same nature, consistently with the analogy 
of faith. 

It is in promises as in commands; they do not exclusively concern 
those to whom they were first made ; but being inserted in the Scriptures, 
they are made of public benefit: for, "whatsoever things were written 
aforetime, were written for our use ; that we, through patience, and com- 
fort of the Scriptures, might have hope." (Rom. xv. 4.) Thus, what waa 



^54 ON TUVl PRACTICAL 

spoken to Joshua, (ch. i. 5,) on his going up against the Canaanites, lest 
he should be discouraged in that enterprise, is applied by St. Paul to the 
believing Hebrews, (Ileb. xiii. 5.) as a remedy against covetousness. or in- 
ordinate cares concerning the things of this life ; it being a very compre- 
hensive promise, that God will never fail us, nor forsake us. But if Ave 
were to apply the promises contained in Psal. xciv. 14. and Jer. xxxii. 40, 
and John x. 28, as promises of indefectible grace, to believers, we should 
violate every rule of sober interpretation, as well as the analogy of faith. 

3 God has suited his promises to his precepts. 

By his precepts we see what is our duty, and what should be the scope 
of our endeavours ; and by his promises we see what is our inability, 
what should be the matter, or object of our prayers, and where we may 
be supplied with that grace which will enable us to discharge our duty. 
Compare Deut. x. 16, with Deut. xxx. 6. Eccles. xii. 13. with Jer. xxxii. 
40. Ezek. xviii. 31, with Ezek. xxxvi. 37. and Rom. vi. 12, with v. 14. 

4. "Where any thing 1 is promised in case of obedience, the 
threatening of the contrary is implied in case of disobedience: 
and where there is a threatening- of any thing- in case of disobe- 
dience, a promise of the contrary is implied, upon condition of 
obedience. 

In illustration of this remark, it will be sufficient to refer to, and com- 
pare Exod. xx. 7, with Psal. xv. 1 — i. and xxiv. 3, 4, and Exod. xx. 12. with 
Fiov. XXX. 17. 




Section IV.— On the Practical Reading of Scripture. 

The sense of Scripture having been explained and as- 
certained, it only remains that we apply it to purposes of 
practical utility; which may be effected either by de- 
ducing inferences from texts, or by practically applying 
the Scriptures to our personal edification and salvation : 
for, if serious contemplation of the Scriptures and prac- 
tice be united together, our real knowledge of the Bible 
must necessarily be increased, and will be rendered, pro- 
gressively, more delightful. This practical reading may 
be prosecuted by every one, with advantage : for the ap- 
plication of Scripture, which it recommends is connected 
with our highest interest and happiness. 

The simplest practical application of the word of God, 
will, unquestionably, prove the most beneficial; provided 
it be conducted w T ith a due regard to those moral qualifi- 
cations which have already been stated and enforced, as 
necessary to the right understanfKng of the Scriptures. 
Should, however, any hints be required, the following 
may, perhaps, be consulted with advantage. 

1. In reading the Scriptures, then, with a view to personal 
application, we should be careful that it be done with a pure 

intention. 






READING"' OF SCRIPTURE. 155 

He, however, who peruses the sacred volume, merely for the purpose 
of amusing himself with the histories it contains, or of beguiling time, er 
to tranquillize his conscience by the discharge of a mere external duty, is 
deficient in the motive with which he performs that duty, and cannot ex- 
pect to derive from it either advantage, or comfort, amid the trials of life. 
Neither will it suffice to read the Scriptures, with the mere design of be- 
coming intimately acquainted with sacred truths, Unless such reading be 
accompanied with a desiref that, through them, he may be convinced of 
his self-love, ambition, or other faults, td-which he may be peculiarly ex- 
posed ; and that by the assistance of divine grace, he may be enabled to 
eradicate them from his mind. 

2. In reading the Scriptures for this purpose, it will be advi- 
sable to select some appropriate lessons from its most useful 
parts ; not being particularly solicitous about the exact con- 
nexion, or other critical niceties that may occur, (though at 
other times, as ability and opportunity offer, these are highly 
proper objects of inquiry,) bat simply considering them in a 
devotional, or practical view. 

After ascertaining, therefore, the plain and obvious meaning of the les- 
son under examination, we should first consider the present state of our 
minds, and carefully compare it with the passage in question: next, we 
should inquire into the causes of those faults, which such perusal may 
have disclosed to us; and should then look around for suitable remedies 
to correct the faults we have thus discovered. 

3. In every practical reading, and application of the Scrip- 
tures to ourselves, our attention should be fixed on Jesus 
Christ, both as a gift to be received by faith, for salvation, and 
also as an exemplar, to be copied and imitated in our lives. 

We are not, however, to imitate him in all things. Some things he did 
by his divine power, and in those we cannot imitate him : other things he 
performed by his sovereign authority, in those we must not imitate him : 
other things also he performed by virtue of his office as a Mediator ; and 
in these, we may not, we cannot follow him. But, in his early piety, his 
obedience to his reputed earthly parents — his unwearied diligence in 
doing good, his humility, his unblameable conduct, his self denial, his con- 
tentment under low circumstances, his frequency in private prayer, his 
affectionate thankfulness, his compassion to the wretched, his holy and 
edifying discourse, his free conversation, his patience, his readiness to for- 
give injuries, his sorrow for the sins of others, his zeal for the worship of 
God, his glorifying his heavenly Father, his impartiality in administering 
reproof, his universal obedience, and his love and practice of holiness— in 
all these instances, Jesus Christ is the most perfect pattern for our imi- 
tation. 

4. We should carefully distinguish between what the Scrip- 
ture itself says, and what is only said in the Scripture, and also, 
the times, places, and persons, when, where, and by whom any 
thing is recorded as having been said or done. 

In Mai. iii. 14, we meet with the following words: "It is in vain to 
serve God ; and what profit is it that we have kept his ordinance?" And 
in 1 Cor. xv. 32, we meet with this maxim of profane men — " Let us eat 
and drink, for to-morrow we die." But, when we read these, and similar 
passages, we must attend to the characters introduced, and remember 
that the persons who spoke thus were \ricked men. Even those, whose 
piety is commended in the sacred volume, did not always act in strict 
conformity to it. Thus, when David vowed that he would utterly destroy 
Nabal's house, we must conclude that he sinned in making that vow: 
and the discourses of Job's friends, though in themselves extremely beau- 



156 



ON THE PRACTICAL 



tiful and instructive, are not, in every respect, to be approved ; for we are 
informed by the sacred historian, that God was wroth with them,, because 
they had not spoken of him the thing that was right. (Job xlii. 7.) 

5. As every good example, recorded in the Scriptures, has 
the force of a rule, so when we read therein of the failings, 
as well as of the sinful actions of men,- we may see what is in 
our own nature : for tl^ere are in us the seeds of the same sin, 
and similar tendencies to its commission, which would bring- 
forth similar fruits, were it not for the preventing and renew- 
ing grace of God. And as many of the persons, whose faults 
are related in the volume of inspiration, were men of infinitely 
more elevated piety than ourselves, we should learn from them 
not only to " be not high-minded, but fear '," (Rom. xi. 20 ;) but 
further, to avoid being rash in censuring the conduct of others. 

The occasions of their declensions are likewise deserving of our atten- 
tion, as well as the temptations to which they were exposed ; and whether 
they did not neglect to watch over their thoughts, words, and actions, en- 
trust too much to their own strength (as in the case of Peter's denial of 
Christ ;) what were the means that led to their penitence and recovery, 
and how they demeaned themselves after they had repented. By a due 
observation, therefore, of their words and actions, and of the temper of 
their minds, so far as this is manifested by words and actions, we shall 
be better enabled to judge of our real progress in religious knowledge, 
than by those characters which are given of holy men, in the Scriptures, 
without such observation of the tenor of their lives, and the frame of 
their minds. 

6. In reading the promises and threat en ings, the exhortations 
and admonitions, and other parts of Scripture, we should ap- 
ply them to ourselves, in such a manner as if they had been 
personally addressed to us. 

For instance, are we reading any of the prophetic Sermons? Let us so 
read and consider them, and, as it were, identify ourselves with the times 
and persons, when, and to whom such prophetic discourses were deliver 
ed, as if they were our fellow-countrymen, fellow-citizens, &c, whom 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and other prophets rebuke, in some chapters, 
■while in others they labour to convince them of their sinful ways, and to 
convert them, or in the event of their continuing disobedient, denounce 
the divine judgments against them. So, in all the precepts of Christian 
virtue, recorded in Matt. v. vi. and vii, we should consider ourselves to be 
as nearly and particularly concerned, as if we had personally heard 
them delivered by Jesus Christ on the Mount. Independently, therefore, 
of the light which will thus be thrown upon the prophetic, or other por- 
tions of Scripture, much practical instruction will be efficiently obtained ; 
for, by this mode of reading the Scriptures, the promises addressed to 
others, will encourage us ; the denunciations against others, will deter us 
from the commission of sin ; the exhortations delivered to others, will ex- 
cite us to the diligent performance of our duty, and, finally, admonitions 
to others will make us walk circumspectly. 

7. The words of the passage selected for our private read- 
ing, after its import has been ascertained, may beneficially be 
summed up, or comprised in very brief prayers or ejaculations. 

The advantage resulting from this simple method has been proved by 
many, who have recommended it. If we pray over the substance of 
Scripture, with our Bible before us, it may impress the memory and heart 
the more deeply. Should any references to the Scriptures be required, in 
confirmation of this statement, we would briefly notice, that the follow- 
ing passages, among many others that might be cited, will, by addressing 



READING OF SCRIPTURE. 157 

them to God, and, by a slight change also in the person, become admira- 
ble petitions for divine teaching; viz. : Col. i. 9, 10. Eph. i. T7, 18, 19. 

I Pet. ii. 1, 2. The hundred and nineteenth Psalm contains numerous 
similar passages. 

8. In the practical reading of the Scriptures, all things are 
not to be applied at once, but gradually and successively ; and 
this application must be made, not so much with the view of 
supplying us with materials for talking, as with matter for 
practice. 

Finally, this practical reading ana application must be 
diligently continued through life ; and we may, with the 
assistance of divine grace, reasonably hope for success in 
it, if to reading we add constant prayer, and medita- 
tion on what we have read. With these we are further to 
conjoin a perpetual comparison of the sacred writings ; 
daily observation of what takes place in ourselves, as well 
as what we learn from the experience of others ; a strict 
and vigilant self-examination ; together with frequent con- 
versation with men of learning and piety, who have made 
greater progress in saving knowledge ; and lastly, the 
diligent cultivation of internal peace. 

Other observations might be offered ; but the preceding 
hints, if duly considered and acted upon, will make us 

II neither barren nor unfruitful in the knowledge of our 
Lord Jesus Christ." (2 Pet. i. 8.) And if, to some of his 
readers, the author should appear to have dilated too much 
on so obvious a topic, its importance must be his apology. 
Whatever relates to the confirmation of our faith, the im- 
provement of our morals, or the elevation of our affec- 
tions, ought not to be treated lightly or with indifference. 






158 



PART III. 

A COMPENDIUM OF BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 



BOOK I.— 1. A SKETCH OF THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND. 



CHAPTER I. 

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND 




Grotto at Nazareth, said to have been the Rouse of Joseph and Mary. 

This country has, in different ages, been called by va- 
rious Names, which have been derived either from its in- 
habitants, or from the extraordinary circumstances attach- 
ed to it. Thus in Jer. iv. 20, it is termed generally the 
land : and hence, both in the Old and New Testament, 
the original word, which is sometimes rendered earth , 



GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND. 159 

land, or country, is by the context, in many places, deter- 
mined to mean the promised land of Israel ; as in Josh, 
ii. 3, Matt. v. 5, and Luke iv. 25. But the country oc- 
cupied by the Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews, is, in the 
sacred volume, more particularly called 

1. The Land of Canaan, from Canaan, the youngest 
son of Ham, and grandson of Noah, who settled here after 
the confusion of Babel, and divided the country among 
his eleven children. (Gen. xi. 15. et seq.) 

2. The Land of Promise, (Heb. xi. 9,) from the pro 
mise made by Jehovah to Abraham, that his posterity 
should possess it, (Gen. xii. 7, and xiii. 15 ;) who being 
termed Hebrews, this region was thence called the Land 
of the Hebrews. (Gen. xl. 15.) 

3. The Land of Israel, from the Israelites, or poste- 
rity of Jacob, having settled themselves there. This 
name is of most frequent occurrence in the Old Testa- 
ment : it is also to be found in the New Testament, (as in 
Matt. ii. 20, 21.) Within this extent lay all the provinces 
or countries visited by Jesus Christ, except Egypt, and 
consequently almost all the places mentioned, or referred 
to in the four Gospels. After the separation of the ten 
tribes, that portion of the land which belonged to the 
tribes of Judah and Benjamin, who formed a separate 
kingdom, was distinguished by the appellation of Judsea, 
or the land of Judah, (Psal. lxxvi. 1 ;) which name the 
whole country retained during the existence of the second 
temple, and under the dominion of the Romans. 

4. The Holy Land, which appellation is to this day 
conferred on it by all Christians, as having been hallowed 
by the presence, actions, miracles, discourses, and suffer- 
ings of Jesus Christ. This name is also to be found in 
the Old Testament, (Zech. ii. 12,) and in the Apocryphal 
books of Wisdom (xii. 3,) and 2 Maccabees, (i. 7.) The 
whole world was divided by the ancient Jews into two 
general parts, the land of Israel, and the land out of Is- 
rael, that is, all the countries inhabited by the nations of 
the world, or the Gentiles ; to this distinction there seems 
to be an allusion in Matt. vi. 32. All the rest of the 
world, together with its inhabitants, (Judaea excepted,) was 
accounted as profane, polluted, and unclean, (see Isa. xxxv. 
9, Hi. 1, with Joel iii. 17, Amos vii. 7, and Acts x. 1 ;) 



1(J0 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 

but, though the whole land of Israel was regarded as holy, 
as being the place consecrated to the worship of God, and 
the inheritance of his people, whence they are collectively 
styled saints, and a holy nation or people, (in Exod. xix. 6. 
Deut. vii. 6, xiv. 2, xxvi. 19, xxxiii. 3. 2 Chron. vi. 41. 
Fsal. xxxiv. 9, 1. 5. 7, lxxix. 2, and cxlviii. 4,) yet the 
Jews imagined particular parts to be vested with more 
than ordinary sanctity, according to their respective situa- 
tions. Thus the parts situated beyond Jordan were con- 
sidered to be less holy than those on this side ; walled 
towns were supposed to be more clean and holy than 
other places, because no lepers were admissible into them, 
and the dead were not allowed to be buried there. Even 
the very dust of the land of Israel was reputed to possess 
such a peculiar degree of sanctity, that when the Jews re- 
turned from any heathen country, they stopped at its 
borders, and wiped the dust of it from their shoes, lest the 
sacred inheritance should be polluted with it ; nor would 
they suffer even herbs to be brought to them, from the 
ground of their Gentile neighbours, lest they should bring 
any of the mould with them, and thus defile their pure 
land. To this notion, our Lord unquestionably alluded 
when he commanded his disciples to shake off the dust of 
their feet, (Matt. x. 14,) on returning from any house or 
city that would neither receive nor hear them ; thereby 
intimating to them, that when the Jews had rejected the 
Gospel, they were no longer to be regarded as the people 
of God, but were on a level with heathens and idolaters. 

5. The appellation of Palestine, by which the whole 
land appears to have been calleu, in the days of Moses, 
(Exod. xv. 14,) is derived from the Philistines, a people 
who migrated from Egypt, and, having expelled the abori- 
ginal inhabitants, settled on the borders of the Mediter- 
ranean ; where they became so considerable as to give 
their name to the whole country, though they in fact pos- 
sessed only a small part of it. The Philistines were, foi 
a long time, the most formidable enemies of the children 
of Israel ; but about the year of the world 3841, (e. c. 
159,) the illustrious Judas Maccabeus subdued their coun- 
try ; and about sixty-five years afterward Jannseus burnt 
their city Gaza, and incorporated the remnant of the Phi- 
listines with such Jews as he placed in their country. 



OF THE HOLY LAND \Q J 

The Boundaries of the land promised to Abraham 
are, in Gen. xv. 18, stated to be from the river of Egypt 
unto the great river, the river Euphrates. Of this tract, 
however, the Israelites were not immediately put in pos- 
session : and although the limits of their territories were 
extended under the reigns of David and Solomon, (2 Sam 
viii. 3. et seq. 2 Chron. ix. 26,) yet they did not always 
retain that tract. It lies far within the temperate zone, 
and between 31 and 33 degrees of north latitude, and was 
bounded on the west by the Mediterranean or Great Sea, 
as it is often called in the Scriptures ; on the east by Ara- 
bia ; on the south by the river of Egypt, (or the river 
Nile, whose eastern branch was reckoned the boundary of 
Egypt, towards the great desert of Shur, which lies be- 
tween Egypt and Palestine,) and by the Desert of Sin, or 
Beersheba, the southern shore of the Dead Sea, and the 
river Anion ; and on the north by the chain of mountains 
termed Antilibanus, near which stood the city of Dan : 
hence, in the sacred writings we frequently meet with the 
expression, " from Dan to Beersheba" to denote the whole 
length of the land of Israel. 

The land of Canaan, previously to its occupation by 
the Israelites, was possessed by the descendants of Ca- 
naan, the youngest son of Ham, and grandson of Noah ; 
who divided the country among his eleven sons, each of 
whom was the head of a numerous clan or tribe. (Gen. x. 
15 — 19.) Here they resided upwards of seven centuries, 
and founded numerous republics and kingdoms. In the 
days of Abraham, this region was occupied by ten nations ; 
the Kenites, the Kenizzites, and the Kadmonites, to the 
east of Jordan ; and westward, the Hittites, Perizzites, 
Rephaims, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites, and the Je- 
busitcs. (Gen. xv. 18 — 21.) These latter, in the days of 
Moses, were called the Hittites, Girgashites, Amorites, 
Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites. (Dent. vii. 
1. Josh. iii. 10, xxiv. 11.) Besides these devoted nations 
there were others, either settled in the land, at the arrival 
of the Israelites, or in its immediate environs, with whom 
the latter had to maintain many severe conflicts : they 
were six in number, viz. : the Philistines, the Midianites, 
or descendants of Midian, the fourth son of Abraham, by 
Keturah, (Gen. xxv. 2 ;) the Moabites and Ammonites, 
14* 



HJCJ HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 

who sprang from the incestuous offspring of Lot; (Gen 
xix. 30 — 38 ;) the Amalekites, who were descended from 
Amalek, the son of Ham, and grandson of Noah ; and 
the Edomites, or descendants of Esau or Edom. 

On the conquest of Canaan by the children of Israel, 
Joshua divided it into twelve parts, which the twelve tribes 
drew by lot. The tribe of Levi, indeed, possessed no 
lands : God assigned to the Levites, who were appointed 
to minister in holy things, without any secular incum- 
brance, the tenths and first-fruits of the estates of their 
bretkren. Forty-eight cities were appropriated to their 
residence, thence called Levitical cities ; these were dis- 
persed among the twelve tribes, and had their respective 
suburbs, with land surrounding them. Of these cities the 
Kohathites received twenty-three, the Gershomites thir- 
teen, and the Merarites twelve ; and six of them, three on 
each side of Jordan, were appointed to be cities of refuge, 
whither the inadvertant man-slayer might flee, and find 
an asylum from his pursuers, and be secured from the 
effects of private revenge, until cleared by a legal pro- 
cess. (Numb. xxxv. 6—15. Deut. xix. 4 — 10. Josh. xx. 7, 
8.) In this division of the land into twelve portions, the 
posterity of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Jo- 
seph) had their portions as distinct tribes, in consequence 
of Jacob having adopted them ; and these two are reckon- 
ed instead of Joseph and Levi. The tribes of Reuben, 
Gad, and half tribe of Manasseh, had their portion beyond 
Jordan ; the rest settled on this side of the river. Dan 
was reputed to be the furthest city to the north of the Holy 
Land, as Beersheba was to the south. 

Another division of the Holy Land took place after the 
death of Solomon, when ten tribes revolted from Reho- 
boam, and erected themselves into a separate kingdom 
under Jeroboam. This was called the kingdom of Israel, 
and its metropolis was Samaria. The other two tribes of 
Benjamin and Judah, continuing faithful to Rehoboam, 
formed the kingdom of Judah, whose capital was Jerusa- 
lem. But this division ceased on the subversion of the 
kingdom of Israel by Shaimaneser king of Assyria, after 
it had subsisted two hundred and fiftv-four years, from the 
year of the world 3030 to 3283. (b.'c. 717.) 

hi the time of Jesus Christ, the whole of this country 



OF THE HOLY LAND. XG3 

was divided into four separate regions, viz. : Judaea, Sa- 
maria, Galilee, and Perae, or the country beyond Jordan. 

I. Jud^a. — Of these regions, Judaea was the most distin- 
guished, comprising the territories which had formerly be- 
longed to the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, and part 
of the tribe of Dan. The southern part of it was called 
Idumaea, and it extended westward from the Dead Sea to 
the Great (or Mediterranean) Sea. Its metropolis was 
Jerusalem, of which a separate notice will be found in a 
subsequent number : and of the other towns or villages of 
note, contained in this region, the most remarkable were 
Arimathea, Azotus, or Ashdod, Bethany, Bethlehem, 
Bethphage, Emmaus, Ephraim, Gaza, Jericho, Joppa, 
Lydda, and Rama. 

II. Samaria. — This division of the Holy Land derives 
its name from the city of Samaria, and comprises the tract 
of country which was originally occupied by the two 
tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, within Jordan, lying ex- 
actly in the middle, between Judaea and Galilee ; so that 
it was absolutely necessary for persons, who were desirous 
of going expeditiously from Galilee to Jerusalem, to pass 
through this country. This sufficiently explains the remark 
of St. John (iv. 4.) The three chief places of this di 
vision noticed in the Scriptures are, Samaria, Sichem, or 
Schechem, and Antipatris. 

III. Galilee. — This portion of the Holy Land is very 
frequently mentioned in the New Testament ; it exceed- 
ed Judaea in extent, but its limits probably varied at diffe- 
rent times. It comprised the country formerly occupied 
by the tribes of Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, and Asher, 
and part of the tribe of Dan ; and is divided by Josephus 
into Upper and Lower Galilee. Upper Galilee abounded 
in mountains ; and, from its vicinity to the Gentiles who 
inhabited the cities of Tyre and Sidon, it is called Gali- 
lee of the Gentiles (Matt. iv. 15,) and the coasts of Tyre 
and Sidon. (Mark vii. 31.) The principal city in this 
region was Caesarea Philippi, through which the main 
road lay to -Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon. Lower Galilee 
was situated in a rich and fertile plain between the Me- 
diterranean Sea and the lake of Gennesareth ; and, 
according to Josephus, this district was very populous, 
containing upwards of two hundred cities and towns. 



|(J4 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 

This country was most honoured by our Saviour's pre- 
sence. The principal cities of lower Galilee, mentioned 
in the New Testament, are Tiberias, Capernaum, Chora- 
zin, Bethsaida, Nazareth, Cana, Nain, Caesarea of Pales- 
tine, and Ptolemais. 

IV. Perjea. — This district comprised the six following 
provinces or cantons, viz. : Abilene, Trachonitis Iturasa, 
Gaulonitis, Batanea, and Peraea, strictly so called, to which 
some geographers have added Decapolis. 1. Abilene 
was the most northern of these provinces, being situated 
between the mountains of Libanus and Antilibanus, and 
deriving its name from the city Abila. It is one of the four 
tetrarchies mentioned by Saint Luke (iii. 1.) 2. Tra- 
chonitis was bounded by the desert Arabia on the east, 
Batanea on the west, Ituraea on the south, and the coun- 
try of Damascus on the north. It abounded with rocks, 
which afforded shelter to numerous thieves and robbers. 

3. Iturjea anciently belonged to the half tribe of Manas- 
seh, who settled on the east of Jordan : it stood to the 
east of Batanea and to the south of Trachonitis. Of these 
two cantons Philip, the son of Herod the Great, was te- 
trarch at the time John the Baptist commenced his minis- 
try. (Luke iii. 1.) It derived its name from Jetur, the 
son of Ishmael, (I Chron. i. 31,) and was also called 
Auranitis from the city of Hauran. (Ezek. xlvii. 16. 18.) 

4. Gaulonitis was a tract on the east side of the lake of 
Gennesareth, and the river Jordan, which derived its 
name from Gaulan or Golan the city of Og, king of Ba- 
shan. (Josh. xx. 8.) This canton is not mentioned in 
the New Testament. 5. Batanea, the ancient kingdom 
of Bashan, was situated to the north-east of Gaulonitis : 
its limits are not easy to be defined. It was part of the 
territory given to Herod Antipas and is not noticed in the 
New Testament. 6. PERiEA, in its restricted sense, in- 
cludes the southern part of the country beyond Jordan, 
lying south of Ituraea, east cf Judese and Samaria ; and 
was anciently possessed by the two tribes of Reuben and 
Gad. Its principal place was the strong fortress of Ma- 
chae-rus, erected for the purpose of checking the predatory 
incursions of the Arabs. This fortress, though not spe- 
cified by name in the New Testament, is memorable as 
the place where John the Baptist was put to death. (Matt. 



OF THE HOLY LAND. 165 

xiv. 3 — 12.) The canton of Decapolis, (Matt. iv. 25. 
Mark v. 20, and vii. 31,) which derives its name from 
the ten cities it contained, was part of the region of Persea. 
Concerning its limits, and the names of its ten cities, geo- 
graphers are by no means agreed : among them, however, 
we may safely reckon Gadara, where our Saviour wrought 
some miracles, and perhaps Damascus, chiefly celebrated 
for the conversion of Saint Paul, which took place in its 
vicinity. Of the whole country thus described, Jerusa- 
lem was the metropolis during the reigns of David and 
Solomon ; after the secession of the ten tribes, it was the 
capital of the kingdom of Judah, but during the time of 
Christ, and until the subversion of the Jewish polity, it 
was the metropolis of Palestine. 

Jerusalem is frequently styled in the Scriptures the 
Holy City, (Isa. xlviii. 2. Dan. ix. 24. Nehem. xi. 1. 
Matt. iv. 5. Rev. xi. 2,) because the Lord chose it out of 
all the tribes of Israel to place his name there, his temple 
and his worship; (Deut. xii. 5, xiv. 23, xvi. 2, xxvi. 2 ;) 
and to be the centre of union in religion and government 
for all the tribes of the commonwealth of Israel. It is 
held in the highest veneration by Christians for the mira- 
culous and important transactions which happened there 
and also by the Mahommedans, who to this day never 
call it by any other appellation than El-Kods, or the Holy, 
sometimes adding the epithet El- Sheriff, or The Noble. 
The original name of the city was Salem, or Peace : (Gen. 
xiv. IS :; the import of Jerusalem is, the vision or inhe- 
ritance of peace ; and to this it is not improbable that our 
Saviour alluded in his beautiful and pathetic lamentation 
over the city. (Luke xix. 41.) It was also formerly 
called Jebus from one of the sons of Canaan. (Josh, 
xviii. 28.) After its capture by Joshua, (Josh, x.) it was 
jointly inhabited both by Jews and Jebusites (Josh. xv. 
63,) for about five hundred years, until the time of David ; 
who, having expelled the Jebusites, made it his re- 
sidence, (2 Sam. v. 6 — 9,) and erected a noble palace 
there, together with several other magnificent buildings, 
whence it is sometimes styled the City of David. (1 
Chron. xi. 5.) 

Jerusalem, after its destruction by the Chaldasans, was 
rebuilt by the Jews, on their return from the Babylonish 



|55 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 

captivity. The city was built on three principal hills ; 
viz. : 1. Sion, on the southern side, which was the highest, 
and contained the citadel, the king's palace, and the up- 
per city. 2. Moriah, on which was the temple, a smaller 
eminence on the east of the northern part of Sion, and 
separated from it by a valley, over which was a bridge ; 
and 3. Acra, so called in a later age, lying north of Sion, 
and covered by the lower city, which was the most con- 
siderable portion of the whole metropolis. 

On the south side stood the mount of Corruption, 
wher"* Solomon, in his declining years, built temples to 
Moloch, Chemosh, and Ashtaroth. (1 Kings, xi. 7. 2 
Kings xxiii. 13.) 

Towards the west, and without the walls of the city, 
agreeably to the law of Moses, (Levit. iv,) lay mount 
Calvary or Golgotha, that is, the place of a skull. (Matt. 
xxvii. 33.) 

During the time of our Saviour, Jerusalem was adorn- 
ed with numerous edifices, some of which are mentioned 
or alluded to in the New Testament ; but its chief glory 
was the Temple, (described in a subsequent page,) which 
magnificent and extensive structure occupied the northern 
and lower eminence of Sion, as we learn from the Psal- 
mist, (xlviii. 2.) Beautiful for situation, the delight of 
the whole earth, is Mount Sion. On her north side is the 
city of the great king. 

Next to the temple in point of splendour, was the very 
superb palace of Herod, wnich is largely described by Jo- 
sephus ; it afterwards became the residence of the Roman 
procurators, who for this purpose generally claimed the 
royal palaces in those provinces which were subject to 
kings. These dwellings of the Eoman procurators in the 
provinces were called jrrcstoria : Herod's palace therefore 
was Pilate's praetorium : (Matt, xxvii. 27. Johnxviii. 2S:) 
and in some part of this edifice was the armoury or bar- 
rack of the Roman soldiers that garrisoned Jerusalem, 
whither Jesus was conducted and mocked by them. 
(Matt, xxvii. 27. Mark xv. 16.) In the front of this pa- 
lace was the tribunal, where Pilate sat in a judicial capa- 
city to hear and determine weighty causes : being a raised 
pavement of Mosaic work, (\idor P a>roi>, lithostroton,) the 
evangelist informs us, that in the Hebrew language it was 



OF THE HOLY LAND. \QJ 

on this account termed gabbatha, (John xix. 13,) i. e. an 
elevated place. On a steep rock, adjoining the north-west 
corner of the Temple, stood the Tower of Antonia, a 
strong citadel, in which a Roman legion was always 
quartered. It overlooked the two outer courts of the 
temple, and communicated with its cloisters by means of 
secret passages, through which the military could descend 
and quell any tumult that might arise during the great 
festivals. This was the guard to which Pilate alluded in 
Matt, xxviii. 65. The tower of Antonia was thus named 
by Herod, in honour of his friend Mark Antony : and this 
citadel is the castle into which St. Paul was conducted, 
(Acts xxi. 34, 35,) and of which mention is made in Acts 
xxii. 24. As the temple was a fortress that guarded the 
whole city of Jerusalem, so the tower of Antonia was a 
guard that entirely commanded the temple. According 
to the Jewish Historian, Josephus, the circumference of 
Jerusalem, previously to its being besieged and destroyed 
Dy the Roman army, was thirty-three furlongs, or nearly 
four miles and a half : and the wall of circumvallation, 
constructed by order of the Roman general, Titus, he 
states to have been thirty-nine furlongs, or four miles eight 
hundred and seventy-five paces. 

During the reigns of David and Solomon, Jerusalem 
was the metropolis of the land of Israel ; but, after the 
defection of the ten tribes under Jeroboam, it was the 
capital of the kings of Judah, during whose government 
it underwent various revolutions. It was captured four 
times without being demolished, viz. : by Shishak, sove- 
reign of Egypt, (2 Chron. xii,) from whose ravages it 
never recovered its former splendour ; by Antiochus Epi- 
phanes, who treated the Jews with singular barbarity; 
by Pompey the Great, who rendered the Jews tributary 
to Rome ; and by Herod, with the assistance of a Roman 
force under Sosius. It was first entirely destroyed by 
Nebuchadnezzar, and again by the emperor Titus, the re- 
peated insurrections of the turbulent Jews having filled 
up the measure of their iniquities, and drawn down upon 
them the implacable vengeance of the Romans. Titus 
ineffectually endeavoured to save the temple : it was in- 
volved in the same ruin with the rest of the city, and, 
after it had been reduced to ashes, the foundations of that 



168 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 

sacred edifice were ploughed up by the Koman soldiers. 
Thus literally was fulfilled the prediction of our Lord, 
that not one stone should be left upon another that should 
not be thrown down. (Matt. xxiv. 2.) On his return to 
Rome, Titus was honoured with a triumph ; and, to 
commemorate his conquest of Judsea, a triumphal arch 
was erected, which is still in existence. Numerous 
medals of Judaea vanquished were struck in honour of 
the same event. A representation of one of these is given 
in page 23. supra. 

The emperor Adrian erected a city on part of the 
former site of Jerusalem, which he called ^Elia Capito- 
lina : it was afterwards greatly enlarged and beautified by 
Constantine the Great, who restored its ancient name. 
During that emperor's reign, the Jews made various efforts 
to rebuild their temple, which, however, were always frus- 
trated ; nor did better success attend the attempt made 
a. d. 363, by the apostate emperor Julian. An earth- 
quake, a whirlwind, and a fiery eruption, compelled the 
workmen to abandon their design. 

From the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans to 
the present time, that city has remained, for the most 
part, in a state of ruin and desolation ; " and has never 
been under the government of the Jews themselves, but 
oppressed and broken down by a succession of foreign 
masters — the Romans, the Saracens, the Franks, the 
Mamelukes, and last by the Turks, to whom it is still 
subject. It is not, therefore, only in the history of Jose- 
phus, and in other ancient writers, that we are to look 
for the accomplishment of our Lord's predictions : — we 
see them verified at this moment before our eyes, in the 
desolate state of the once celebrated city and temple of 
Jerusalem, and in the present condition of the Jewish 
people, not collected together into any one country, into 
one political society, and under one form of government, 
but dispersed over every region of the globe, and every 
where treated with contumely and scorn." (Bp. Porteus.) 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND. \QQ 




Mount Tabor, as seen from the Plain of Esdraelon. 
CHAPTER II. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Ot THE HOLY LAND. 

The surface of the Holy Land being diversified witn 
mountains and plains, its climate varies in different 
places ; though in general it is more settled than in our 
more western countries. Generally speaking, however, 
the atmosphere is mild ; the summers are commonly dry 
and extremely hot : intensely hot days, however, are fre- 
quently succeeded by intensely cold nights ; and it is to 
these sudden vicissitudes, and their consequent effects on 
the human frame, that Jacob refers, when he says that 
in the day the drought consumed him, and the frost by 
night. (Gen. xxxi. 40.) 

Six several seasons of the natural year are indicated 
in Gen. viii. 22. viz. : seed-time and harvest, cold and heat t 
summer and winter ; and as agriculture constituted the 
principal employment of the Jews, we are informed by 
the rabbinical writers, that they adopted the same division 
of seasons, with reference to their rural work. These 
divisions also exist among the Arabs to this day. 

1. Seed-time comprised, the latter half of the Jev/ish 
month Tisri, the whole of Marchesvan, and the former 
half of Kisleu or Chisleu, that is, from the beginning of 
October to the beginning of Llecember. During this sea- 



170 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

son the weather is various, very often misty, cloudy, witk 
mizzling or pouring rain. 

2. Winter included the latter half of Chisleu, th< 
whole of Tebeth, and the former part of Shebeth, that is, 
from the beginning of December to the beginning ot 
February. In this season, snows rarely fall, except on 
the mountains, but they seldom continue a whole day ; 
the ice is thin and melts as soon as the sun ascends above 
the horizon. As the season advances, the north wind 
and the cold, especially on the lofty mountains, which are 
now covered with snow, is intensely severe, and some- 
times even fatal : the cold is frequently so piercing, that 
persons born in our climate can scarcely endure it. The 
cold, however, varies in the degree of its severity, accord- 
ing to the local situation of the country. 

3. The cold season comprises the latter half of She- 
beth, the whole of Adar, and the former half of Nisan, 
from the beginning of February to the beginning of April. 
At the commencement of this season, the weather is cold, 
but it gradually becomes warm and even hot, particularly 
in the plain of Jericho. Thunder, lightning, and hail 
are frequent. Vegetable nature now revives ; the almond 
tree blossoms, and the gardens assume a delightful ap- 
pearance. Barley is ripe at Jericho, though but littie 
wheat is in the ear. 

4. The harvest includes the latter half of Nisan, the 
whole of Jyar (or Zif,) and the former half of Si van, that 
is, from the beginning of April to the beginning of June. 
In the plain of Jericho the heat of the sun is excessive, 
though in other parts of Palestine the weather is most 
delightful ; and on the sea-coast the heat is tempered by 
morning and evening breezes from the sea 

5. The summer comprehends the latter half of Sivan, 
the whole of Thammuz, and the former half of Ab, that 
is, from the beginning of June to the beginning of August. 
The heat of the weather increases, and the nights are so 
warm that the inhabitants sleep on their house-tops in the 
open air. 

6. The hot season includes the latter half of Ab, the 
whole of Elul, and the former half of Tisri, that is, from 
the beginning of August to the beginning of October, 
During the chief part of this season the heat is intense. 



OF THE HOLY LAND. 171 

though less so at Jerusalem than in the plain of Jericho : 
there is no cold, not even in the night, so that travellers 
pass whole nights in the open air without inconvenience. 
Lebanon is for the most part free from snow, except in 
the caverns and defiles where the sun cannot penetrate. 

During the hot season, it is not uncommon in the East 
Indies for persons to die suddenly, in consequence of the 
extreme heat of the solar rays, (whence the necessity of 
being carried in a palanquin.) This is now commonly 
termed a coup-de-soleil or stroke of the sun. The son of 
the woman of Shunem appears to have died in conse- 
quence of a coup-de-soleil ; (2 Kings iv. 19, 20 ;) to which 
there is an allusion in Psalm cxxi. 2. 

Rain falls but rarely, except in autumn and spring ; but 
its absence is partly supplied by the very copious dews 
which fall during the night. The early or autumnal 
rains and the latter or spring rains are absolutely neces- 
sary to the support of vegetation, and were consequently 
objects greatly desired by the Israelites, and Jews. The 
early rains generally fall about the beginning of Novem- 
ber, when they usually ploughed their lands and sowed 
their corn ; and the latter rains fall sometimes towards 
the middle, and sometimes towards the close of April ; 
that is, a short time before they gathered in their 
harvest. These rains, however, were always chilly 
(Ezra x. 9, and Song ii. 11,) and often preceded by 
whirlwinds, (2 Kings iii. 1*6, 17,) that raised such 
quantities of sand as to darken the sky, or, in the words 
of the sacred historian, to make the heavens black with 
clouds and wind. (1 Kings xviii. 45.) In the figurative 
language of the Scripture, these whirlwinds are termed 
the command and the word of God : (Psalm cxlvii. 15. 18:) 
and as they are sometimes fatal to travellers who are 
overwhelmed in the deserts, the rapidity of their advance 
is elegantly employed by Solomon to show the certainty 
as well as the suddenness of that destruction which will 
befall the impenitently wicked. (Prov. i. 27.) The 
rains descend in Palestine with great violence ; and as 
whole villages in the east are constructed only with palm- 
branches, mud, and tiles baked in the sun, (perhaps cor- 
responding to and explanatory of the untempered mortar 
noticed in Ezek. xiii. 11,) these rains not unfrequently 



172 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

dissolve the cement, such as it is, and the houses fall to 
the ground. To these effects our Lord probably alludes 
in Matt. vii. 25 — 27. Very small clouds are likewise 
the forerunners of violent storms and hurricanes in the 
east as well as in the w T est : they rise like a marts hand, 
(1 Kings xviii. 44,) until the whole sky becomes black 
with rain, which descends in torrents. In our Lord's 
time, this phenomenon seems to have become a certain 
prognostic of wet weather. See Luke xii. 54. 

In consequence of the paucity of showers in the east, 
Water is an article of great importance to the inhabitants. 
Hence, in Lot's estimation, it was a principal recommen- 
dation of the plain of Jordan that it was well watered every 
where: (Gen. xiii. 10:) and the same advantage continued 
in later ages to be enjoyed by the Israelites, whose coun- 
try was intersected by numerous brooks and streams. 

Although rivers are frequently mentioned in the sacred 
writings, yet, strictly speaking, the only river in the Holy 
Land is the Jordan, which is sometimes designated in 
Scripture as the river without any addition ; as also is the 
Nile, (Gen. xli. 1. Exod. i. 22, ii. 5, iv. 9, vii. 18, and viii. 
3. 9. 11,) and, occasionally, the Euphrates: (as in Jer. ii. 
IS :) in the passages here referred to, the tenor of the dis 
course must determine which is the river actually intend- 
ed by the sacred writers. The name of river is also given 
to inconsiderable streams and rivulets, as to the Kishon 
(Judges iv. 7, and v. 21,) and the Anion. (Deut. iii. 16.) 

The principal river which waters Palestine is the Jor- 
dan, or Yar-Dan, i. e. the river of Dan, so called because 
it takes its rise in the vicinity of the little city of Dan. 
Its true source is in the lake Phiala, near Caesarea Philippi, 
at the foot of Antilibanus, or the eastern ridge of mount 
Lebanon, whence it passes under ground, and, emerging 
to the light from a cave in the vicinity of Paneas, it flows 
due south through the centre of the country, intersecting 
the lake Merom and the sea or lake of Galilee, and (it is 
said) without mingling with its waters ; and it loses itself 
in the lake Asphaltites or the Dead Sea, into which it 
rolls a considerable volume of deep water, and so rapid as 
to prevent a strong, active and expert swimmer from 
swimming across it. The course of the Jordan is about 
one hundred miles ; its breadth and depth are various. 



THE HOLY LAND. 173 

All travellers concur in stating that its waters are turbid, 
from the rapidity with which they flow. 

Anciently, the Jordan overflowed its banks about the 
time of barley harvest, (Josh. iii. 15, iv. 18. 1 Chron. xii. 

15. Jer. xlix. 19,) or the feast of the passover ; when, 
the snows being dissolved on the mountains, the torrents 
discharged themselves into its channel with great impetu- 
osity. Its banks are covered with various kinds of bushes 
and shrubs, which afford an asylum for wild animals now, 
as they did in the time of Jeremiah, who alludes to them 
(Jer. xlix. 19.) 

The other remarkable streams, or rivulets of Palestine, 
are the following, viz. : 1. The Arnon, which descends from 
the mountain of the same name, and discharges itself into 
the Dead Sea :— 2. The Sihor (the Belus of ancient geo- 
graphers, at present called the Kardanah,) has its source 
about four miles to the east of the heads of the river Ki- 
shon. It waters the plains of Acre and Esdraelon, and 
falls into the sea at the gulph of Keilah : — 3. The brook 
Jabbok takes its rise in the same mountains, and falls into 
the river Jordan : — 4. The Kanah, or brook of reeds, 
springs from the mountains of Judah, but only flows du- 
ring the winter : it falls into the Mediterranean Sea, near 
Caesarea : — 5. The brook Besor, (1 Sam. xxx. 9,) falls 
into the same sea, between Gaza and Rhinocorura : — 6. 
The Kislion issues from the mountains of Carmel, at the 
foot of which it forms two streams ; one flows eastward 
into the sea of Galilee, and the other, taking a westerly 
course through the plain of Jezreel, or Esdraelon, dischar- 
ges itself into the Mediterranean Sea. This is the stream 
noticed in 1 Kings xviii. 40 : — 7. Kedron, Kidron, or 
Cedron, as it is variously termed,* runs in the valley of 
Jehoshaphat, eastward of Jerusalem, between that city 
and the mount of Olives: except during the winter, or 
after heavy rains, its channel is generally dry, but, when 
swollen by torrents, it flows with great impetuosity. 

Lakes, Seas, &c. 

Of the Lakes mentioned in the Scriptures, two are par- 
ticularly worthy of notice ; that of Gennesareth, and the 

• 2 Sam. xv. 23. 1 Kings xv. 13. 2 Kings xxiii. 6. 12. 2 Chron. 

16. Jer. xxxi. 40. John xviii. 1. 

15* 



X74 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

lake of Sodom, both of which are termed seas, agreeably 
to the Hebrew phraseology, which gives the name of sea 
to any large body of water. 

The Sea of Galtlee, through which the Jordan flows, 
was anciently called the Sea of Chinnereth, (Numb, xxxiv. 
11,) or Cinneroth, (Josh. xii. 3,) from its vicinity to the 
town of that name ; afterwards, Genesar, (1 Mac. xi. 67,) 
and in the time of Jesus Christ, Genesareth, or Genneza- 
reth, (Luke v. 1,) from the neighbouring land of the same 
name, (Matt xiv. 34. Mark xv. 53,) and also the sea of 
Tiberias, (John vi. 1, xxi. 1,) from the contiguous city of 
Tiberias. The waters of this lake are very sweet, and 
abound with fish : this circumstance marks the propriety 
of our Lord's parable of the net cast into the sea, (Matt, 
xiii. 47 — 49,) near the shore. Pliny states this lake to 
be sixteen miles in length, by six miles in breadth. Dr. 
D. E. Clarke, by whom it was visited rather more than 
twenty years since, describes it as longer, and finer than 
our Cumberland and Westmoreland lakes, although it 
yields in majesty to the stupendous features of Loch 
Lomond, in Scotland: like our Windermere, the lake of 
Gennezareth is often greatly agitated by winds. (Matt 
viii. 23—27. 

The Lake, or Sea op Sodom, or the Dead Sea, is 
about seventy-two English miles in length, and nearly 
nineteen in breadth. It was anciently called in the Scrip- 
tures, the Sea of the Plain, (Deut. iii. 17, iv. 49,) being 
situated in a valley, with a plain lying to the south of it ; 
the Salt Sea, (Deut. iii. 17. Josh. xv. 5,) from the ex- 
tremely saline, bitter, and nauseous taste of its waters ; 
the Salt Sea eastward, (Numb, xxxiv. 3,) and the East 
Sea, (Ezek-. xlvii. 18. Joel ii. 20.) By Josephus and 
other writers, it is called the lake Asphaltites, from the 
abundance of bitumen found in it ; and also the Dead 
Sea, from ancient traditions, erroneously, though gene- 
rally received, that no living creature can exist in its stag- 
nant and sulphureous waters. Here formerly stood the 
cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, which, with two other 
cities of the plain, were consumed by fire from heaven : 
to this destruction, there are numerous allusions in the 
Scriptures. 

Beside the preceding rivers and lakes, the Scriptures 
mention several Fountains and Wells: of these the 



OF THE HOLY LAND. j 75 

most remarkable are the fountain, or pool, of Siloam, and 
Jacob's Well. 

Siloam was a fountain under the walls of Jerusalem, 
east, between the city and the brook Kedron : it is 
supposed to be the same as the fountain En-Rogel, or 
the Fuller's Fountain. (Josh. xv. 7, and xviii. 16. 2 
Sam. xvii. 17, and 1 Kings i. 9.) " The spring issues 
from a rock, and runs in a silent stream, according to the 
testimony of Jeremiah." 

Jacob's Well, or fountain, is situated at a small dis 
tance, from Sichem, or Shecbem, also called Sychar, and 
at present Napolose : it was the residence of Jacob be- 
fore his sons slew the Shechemites. It has been visited 
by pilgrims of all ages, but especially by Christians, to 
whom it has become an object of veneration from the me 
morable discourse of our Saviour with the woman of Sa- 
maria. (John iv. 5 — 30.) 

In our own time, it is the custom for the oriental wo- 
men, particularly those who are unmarried, to fetch wa- 
ter from the wells, in the mornings and evenings ; at which 
times they go forth adorned with their trinkets. This 
will account for Rebecca's fetching water, (Gen. xxiv. 
15,) and will further prove, that there was no improprie- 
ty in Abraham's servant presenting her with more valua- 
ble jewels, than those she had before on her hands. (Gen, 
xxiv. 22—47.) 

Mountains, &c. 

Palestine is a mountainous country, especially that 
part of it, which is situated between the Mediterranean, 
or Great Sea, and the river Jordan. The principal 
Mountains, not already mentioned, are those of Leba- 
non, Carmel, Tabor, the mountains of Israel and of Gilead. 

1. Lebanon, by the Greeks and Latins termed Liba- 
nus, is a long chain of lime-stone mountains, extending 
from the neighbourhood of Sidon on the west, to the vi- 
cinity of Damascus eastward, and forming the extreme 
northern boundary of the Holy Land. It is divided into 
two principal ridges, or ranges parallel to each other, the 
most westerly of which is known by the name of Liba- 
nus, and the opposite, or eastern ridge, by the appella- 



176 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

tion of Anti-Libanus. These mountains may be seen 
from a very considerable distance ; and it rarely happens 
that some part or other of them, is not covered with snow 
throughout the year. They are by no means barren, but 
are almost all well cultivated and well peopled : their 
summits are, in many parts, level, and form extensive 
plains, in which are sown corn, and all kinds of pulse. 
They are watered by numerous springs, rivulets, aud 
streams of excellent water, which diffuse on all sides 
freshness and fertility, even in the most elevated regions. 
To these Solomon has a beautiful allusion. (Song iv. 15.) 
Lebanon was anciently celebrated for its stately cedars, 
which are now less numerous than in former times ; they 
grow among the snow near the highest part of the moun- 
tain, and are remarkable, as well for their age and 
size, as for the frequent allusions made to them in the 
Scriptures. (See 1 Kings iv. 33. Psalm lxxx. 10, and 
xcii. 12, <fec. &c.) 

Anti-Libanus, or Anti-Lebanon, is the more lofty ridge 
of the two, and its summit is clad with almost perpetual 
snow, which was carried to the neighbouring towns for 
the purpose of cooling liquors ; (Prov. xxv. 13, and per- 
haps Jer. xviii. 14 ;) a practice which has obtained in 
the east to the present day. 

2. Mount Carmel, is a range of hills, about fifteen 
hundred feet in height, and extending six or eight miles 
nearly north and south. It is situated about ten miles to 
the south of Acre, or Ptolemais, on the shore of the Medi- 
terranean Sea. Its summits abound with oaks and other 
trees ; and among brambles, wild vines and olive trees 
are still to be found. On the side next the sea is a cave, 
to which some commentators have supposed that the pro- 
phet Elijah desired Ahab to bring Baal's prophets, when 
celestial fire descended on his sacrifice. (1 Kings xviii, 
19 — 40.) There was another mount Carmel, with a city 
of the same name, situated in the tribe Judah, and men- 
tioned in Joshua xv. 55. 1 Sam. xxv. 2, and 2 Sam iii. 3. 

3. Tabor, or Thabor, is a mountain of a conical form, 
entirely detached from any neighbouring mountain, and 
stands on one side of the great plain of Esdraelon : it is 
entirely covered with green oaks, and other trees, shrubs, 
and odoriferous plants. The prospects from this moun- 



OF THE IIOLV LAND. 177 

tain, are singularly delightful and extensive ; and on its 
eastern side there is a small height, which by ancient tra- 
dition, is supposed to have been the scene of our Lord's 
transfiguration. (Matt. xvii. 1—8. Mark ix. 2—9.) 

4. The Mountains op Israel, also called the moun- 
tains of Ephraim, were situated in the very centre of the 
Holy Land, and opposite to the Mountains of Judah. 
The soil of both is fertile, excepting those ridges of the 
mountains of Israel, which look towards the region of the 
Jordan, and which are both rugged and difficult of ascent, 
and also with the exception of the chain extending from 
the Mount of Olives near Jerusalem to the plain of Jeri- 
cho, which has always afforded lurking-places to robbers. 
(Luke x. 30.) The most elevated summit of this ridge, 
which appears to be the same that was anciently called 
the lock of Rimmon, (Judg. xx. 45. 47,) is at present 
known by the name of Quarantania, and is supposed to 
have been the scene of our Saviour's temptation. (Matt, 
iv. 8.) It is described by Maundrel, as situated in a 
mountainous desert, and being a most miserably dry and 
barren place, consisting of high rocky mountains, torn 
and disordered, as if the earth had here suffered some 
great convulsion. The Mountains of Ebal (sometimes 
written GebaT) and Gerizim (Deut. xi. 29, xxvii. 4. 12. 
Josh. viii. 30 — 35,) are situate, the former to the north, 
and the latter to the south of Sichem or Napolose, whose 
streets run parallel to the latter mountain, which over- 
looks the town. In the mountains of Judah, there are 
numerous caves, some of a considerable size : the most 
remarkable of these is the cave of Adullam, mentioned 
in 1 Sam. xxii. 1, 2. 

5. The Mountains of Gilead are situated beyond 
the Jordan, and extend from Hermon southward to Ara- 
bia Petra?a. The northern part of them, known by the 
name of Bashan, was celebrated for its stately oaks, and 
numerous herds of cattle pastured there, to which there 
are many allusions in the Scriptures. (See, among other 
passages, Deut. xxxii. 14. Psalm xxii. 12, and lxviii. 15. 
Isa. ii. 13. Ezek. xxxix. 18. Amos iv. 1.) The middle 
part, in a stricter sense, was termed Gilead; and in the 
southern part, beyond Jordan, were the Mountains of 
Abarim, the northern limits of the territory of Moab, 



178 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

which are conjectured to have derived their name from 
the passes between the hills of which they were formed. 
The most eminent among these are Pisgah and Nebo, 
which form a continued chain, and command a view of 
the whole land of Canaan. (Deut. iii. 27, xxxii. 48 — 50, 
xxxiv. 1, 2, 3.) From Mount Nebo, Moses surveyed the 
promised land, before he was gathered to his people. 
(Numb, xxvii. 12, 13.) The Hebrews frequently give 
the epithet of everlasting to their mountains, because they 
are as old as the earth itself. See, among other instances, 
Gen. xlix. 26, and Deut. xxxiii. 15. 

The Mountains of Palestine were anciently places of 
refuge to the inhabitants when defeated in war, (Gen. xiv. 
10,) and modern travellers assure us that they are still re- 
sorted to for the purpose of shelter. The rocky summits 
found on many of them, appear to have been not unfre- 
quently employed as altars, on which sacrifices were offer- 
ed to Jehovah ; (Judg. vi. 19 — 21, and xiii. 15 — 20 ;) al- 
though they were afterwards converted into places for idol 
worship, for which the prophets Isaiah (lvii. 7,) and Eze- 
kiel (xviii. 6,) severely reprove their degenerate country- 
men. And as many of the mountains of Palestine were 
situated in desert places, the shadow they project has 
furnished the prophet Isaiah with a pleasing image of the 
security that shall be enjoyed under the kingdom of 
Messiah, (xxxii. 2.) 

Valleys, Plains, &c. 

Numerous Valleys are mentioned in Scripture : the 
three most memorable of these are, 

1. The Vale of Siddim, in which Abraham discom- 
fitted Chedorlaomer, and his confederate emirs, or kings, 
Gen. xiv. 2—10. 

2. The Valley of Elah, which lies about three miles 
from Bethlehem, on the road to Jaffa : it is celebrated as 
the spot where David defeated and slew Goliath. (1 Sam. 
xvii.) " Nothing has ever occurred to alter the appear- 
ance of the country. The very brook whence David 
chose him Jive smooth stones has been noticed by many a 
thirsty pilgrim, journeying from Jaffa to Jerusalem ; all 
of whom must pass it in their way." 

3. The narrow Valley of Hinnom lies at the foot of 



OF THE HOLY LAND. J 79 

Mount Sion, and is memorable for the inhuman and bar- 
barous, as well as idolatrous worship, here paid to Moloch ; 
to which idol parents sacrificed their smiling offspring, by 
making them pass through the fire. (2 Kings xxiii. 10. 
2 Chron. xxviii. 3.) To drown the lamentable shrieks 
of the children thus immolated, musical instruments (in 
Hebrew termed Tuph) were played ; whence the spot 
where the victims were burnt, was called Tophet. From 
the same circumstance, Ge-Hinnom (which in Hebrew 
denotes the Valley of Hinnom, and from which the Greek 
word Yc'evva. Gehenna, is derived,) is sometimes used to 
denote hell, or hell-fire. 

The country of Judaea, being mountainous and rocky, 
is full of Caverns ; to which the inhabitants were accus- 
tomed to flee for shelter from the incursions of their en- 
emies. (Judg. vi. 2. 1 Sam. xiii. 6, xiv. 11.) Some of 
these caves were very capacious : that of Engedi was so 
large, that David and six hundred men, concealed them- 
selves in its sides ; and Saul entered the mouth of the cave 
without perceiving that any one was there. 

Numerous fertile and level tracts, are mentioned in the 
sacred volume, under the title of Plains. Three of these 
are particularly worthy of notice, viz. : 

1. The Plain of the Mediterranean Sea, which 
reached from the river of Egypt to Mount Carmel. 

2. The Tract between Gaza and Joppa, was simply 
called the Plain : in this stood the five principal cities of 
the Philistine satrapies, Ascalon, Gath, Gaza, Ekron, or 
Accaron, and Azotus, or Ashdod. 

3. The Plain of Jezreel, or Esdraelon, also called the 
Great Plain, (the Armageddon of the Apocalypse :) it 
extends from Mount Carmel and the Mediterranean, to the 
place where the Jordan issues from the Sea of Tiberias, 
through the middle of the Holy Land. This plain is en- 
closed on all sides by mountains, and is cultivated. 

Wildernesses, or Deserts. 

Frequent mention is made in the Scriptures of Wil- 
dernesses, or Deserts, by which we usually, though 
erroneously, understand desolate places, equally void of 
cities and inhabitants: for the Hebrews gave the name of 



]gO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

desert, or wilderness, to all places that were not cultivated, 
but which were chiefly appropriated to the feeding of cat- 
tle, and in many of them trees and shrubs grew wild. 
Some of them are mountainous and well watered, while 
others are sterile sandy plains, either destitute of water, 
or affording a very scanty supply from the few springs 
that are occasionally to be found in them ; yet even these 
afford a grateful, though meagre pasturage to camels, goats, 
and sheep. In this latter description of deserts, it is that 
the weary traveller is mocked by the distant appearance 
of white vapours, which are not unlike those white mists 
we often see hovering over the surface of a river in a sum- 
mer evening, after a hot day. When beheld at a distance, 
they resemble an expanded lake ; but, upon a nearer ap- 
proach, the thirsty traveller perceives the deception. To 
this phenomenon the prophet Isaiah alludes, (xxxv. 7,) 
where, predicting the blessings of the Redeemer's king- 
dom, he says, The glowing sand shall become a pool, and 
the thirsty soil bubbling springs. 

The deserts of the Hebrews frequently derived their 
appellations, from the places to which they were contigu- 
ous. The most celebrated is the Great Desert, called the 
JVilde?'ness, or Desert of Judah. (Psal. lxiii. title.) The 
desert of Judaea, in which John the Baptist abode till 
the day of his showing unto Israel, (Luke i. 80,) and where 
he first taught his countrymen, (Matt. iii. 1. Mark i. 4. 
John x. 39,) was a mountainous, wooded, and thinly in- 
habited tract of country, but abounding in pastures ; it 
was situated adjacent to the Dead Sea, and the River 
Jordan. In the time of Joshua it had six cities, with 
their villages. (Josh. xv. 61, 62.) 

This country also produced some Woods, or Forests 
mentioned in holy writ, such as those of Hareth in the 
tribe of Judah, to which David withdrew from Saul; 
(1 Sam. xxii. 5 ;) of Ephraim, where Absalom received 
the due reward of his unnatural rebellion (2 Sam. xviii. 
6 — 9;) that of Lebanon, where Solomon erected a sump- 
tuous palace (1 Kings vii. 2 ;) the forest of Bethel, sup- 
posed to have stood near the city of that name ; (2 Kings 
ii. 24 ;) and the Forest of Oaks, on the hills of Bashan. 
(Zech. xi. 2.) 



OF THE iioiiY LAND. 1Q£ 

The Fertility of the soil of the Holy Land, so often 
mentioned in the sacred writings, (and especially in Deut. 
vii;. 7—9, xi. 10—12. Gen. xxvi. 12. and Matt. xiii. 8,) 
is confirmed by the united testimonies of ancient writers, 
as well as by all modern travellers. We are assured that 
under a wise and beneficent government, the produce of 
the Holy Land, would exceed all calculation. Its peren- 
nial harvest ; the salubrity of its air ; its limpid springs ; 
its rivers, lakes, and matchless plains ; its hills and vales 
— all these, added to the serenity of its climate, prove this 
land to be indeed "a field which the Lord hath blessed:" 
(Gen. xxvii. 28 :) " God hath given it of the dew of hea- 
ven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and 
wine." 

Such being the state of the Holy Land, at east of that 
part of it which is properly cultivated, we can readily ac- 
count for the vast population it anciently supported. Its 
present forlorn condition is satisfactorily explained by the 
depredations and vicissitudes to which it has been exposed 
in every age : and so far is this from contradicting the as- 
sertions of the sacred writings, that it confirms their au- 
thority ; for, in the event of the Israelites proving unfaith- 
ful to their covenant engagements with Jehovah, all these 
judgments were predicted, and denounced against them; 
(Lev. xxvi. 32. Deut. xxix. 22. et seq. ;) and the exact 
accomplishment of these prophecies affords a permanent 
comment on the declaration of the royal psalmist, that 
God " turneth a fruitful land into barrenness for the wick- 
edness of them that dwell therein." (Psal. cvii. 34.) 



182 



BOOK II— POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS. 



CHAPTER I. 



DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT FROM THE PATRIARCHAL TIMES, TO THE 
BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 

I. The earliest Form of Government of which we 
read in Scripture, was the Patriarchal ; or that exerci- 
sed by the heads of families over their households, with- 
out being responsible to any superior power. Such was 
that exercised by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The pa- 
triarchal power, was a sovereign dominion, so that pa- 
rents may be considered as the first kings, and children 
the first subjects : they had the power of life and death, 
of disinheriting their children, or of dismissing them from 
the paternal home without assigning any reason. 

II. On the departure of the Israelites from the land of 
their oppressors, under the guidance of Moses, Jehovah 
was pleased to institute a new form of government, which 
has been rightly termed a Theocracy ; the supreme le- 
gislative power being exclusively vested in God, or his 
oracle, who alone could enact, or repeal laws. Hence 
the judges, and afterwards the kings, were merely tempo- 
ral viceroys, or the first magistrates in the state : their 
office was, to command the army in war, to summon and 
preside in the senate, or council of princes and elders, 
and in the general assembly of the congregation of Israel, 
and to propose public matters to the deliberation of the 
former, and to the ratification of the latter. During the 
life of Moses, the chief magistracy was lodged in him : 
but, his strength being inadequate to determine all matters 
of controversy between so numerous a nation, a council 
of seventy princes, or elders was instituted, at his request, 
to assist him with their advice, and to lighten the burden 
of government. (Exod. xviii. 13 — 26.) 



DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. \Q§ 

III. On the death of Moses, the command of the chil- 
dren of Israel was confided to Joshua, who had been his 
minister, (Exod. xxiv. 13. Josh. i. 1,) and under whom 
the land of Canaan was subdued, and divided agreeably 
to the divine injunctions : but, his office ceasing with his 
life, the government of Israel was committed to certain 
supreme magistrates, termed Judges. Their dignity was 
for life ; but their office was not hereditary, neither was 
their succession constant. Their authority was not infe- 
rior to that of kings : it extended to peace and war. They 
decided causes without appeal ; but they had no power to 
enact new laws, or to impose new burdens upon the peo- 
ple. They were protectors of the laws, defenders of re- 
ligion, and avengers of crimes, particularly of idolatry, 
which was high treason against Jehovah, their Sove- 
reign. 

IV. At length, the Israelites, weary of having God for 
their sovereign, desired a king to be set over them. (1 Sam. 
viii. 5.) Such a change in their government was fore- 
seen by Moses, who accordingly prescribed certain laws 
for the direction of their future sovereigns, which are re- 
lated in Deut. xvii. 14 — 20. 

Though the authority of the kings was in some re- 
spects limited, by stipulation, yet they exercised very am- 
ple powers. They had the right of making peace, or 
war, and of life and death ; and they administered justice, 
either in person, or by their judges. And though they 
exercised great power in reforming ecclesiastical abuses, 
yet this power was enjoyed by them, not as absolute sove- 
reigns, in their own right. They were merely the vice- 
roys of Jehovah, whu was the sole legislator of Israel : 
and, therefore, as the kings could neither enact a new 
law, nor repeal an old one, the government continued to 
be a theocracy, as well under their permanent administra- 
tion, as we have seen that it was under the occasional ad- 
ministration of the judges. They were inaugurated to 
their high office with great pomp, and were arrayed in 
royal apparel, with a crown and sceptre. The majesty of 
royalty was studiously maintained. It was accounted 
the highest possible honour to be admitted into the royal 
presence, and above all to sit down in his presence. The 
knowledge of this circumstance illustrates several passa- 



1Q4 DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT 

ges of Scripture, particularly Luke i. 19. Matt. v. 8, 
xviii. 10, xx. 20 — 23. After the establishment of royalty 
among the Jews, it appears to have been a maxim in their 
law, that the king's person was inviolable, even though he 
might be tyrannical and unjust; (1 Sam. xxiv. 5 — 8;) a 
maxim which is necessary not only to the security of the 
king, but also to the welfare of the subject. On this 
principle, the Amalekite, who told David the improbable 
and untrue story of his having put the mortally wounded 
Saul to death, that he might not fall into the hands of the 
Philistines, was, merely on this, his own statement, or- 
dered by David to be instantly despatched, because he had, 
laid his hand on the Lord's Anointed. (2 Sam. i. 14.) 

The eastern monarchs were never approached but with 
presents of some kind or other, according to the ability 
of the individuals, who accompanied them with expres- 
sions of the profoundest reverence, prostrating themselves 
to the ground ; and the same practice continues to this 
day. Thus Jacob instructed his sons to carry a present 
to Joseph, when they went to buy food of him, as gover- 
nor of Egypt. (Gen. xliii. 11. 26.) In like manner, the 
magi, who came from the east to adore Jesus Christ, as 
king of the Jews, brought him presents of gold, frankin- 
cense, and myrrh. (Matt. ii. 11.) Allusions to this prac- 
tice occur in Gen. xxxii. 13. 1 Kings x. 2. 10. 25. 2 
Kings v. 5; see also 1 Sam. ix. 7, and 2 Kings viii. 8. 
The prostrations were made, with every demonstration 
of reverence, to the ground. See an instance in 1 Sam. 
xxiv. 8. 

Further, whenever the oriental sovereigns go abroad, 
they are uniformly attended by a numerous and splendid 
retinue : the Hebrew kings, and their sons, either rode on 
asses, or mules, (2 Sam. xiii. 29. 1 Kings i. 33. 38,) or 
in chariots, (1 Kings i. 5. 2 Kings ix. 21, x. 15,) preceded 
or accompanied by their royal guards, (who, in 2 Sam. 
viii. 18, and xv. 18, are termed Cherethites and Pele- 
thites;) as the oriental sovereigns are to this day. And 
whenever the Asiatic monarchs entered upon an expedi- 
tion, or took a journey through desert and untravelled 
countries, they sent harbingers before them, to prepare all 
things for their passage, and pioneers to open the passes, 
level the ways, and remove all impediments. To this 



FROM THE PATR1ARCHIAL TIMES. ETC. 



185 



practice there are allusions in Isa. xl. 3, and Matt. iii. 3. 

The revenues of the kings arose from various sources, 
viz. : 1. Voluntary offeri?igs, which were made to them, 
conformably to the oriental custom. (1 Sam. x. 27, xvi. 
20.) 2. The Produce of the Royal Flocks, (1 Sam. xxi. 
7. 2 Sam. xiii. 23. 2 Chron. xxxii. 28, 29,) and also of 
the royal demesnes, over which certain officers were ap- 
pointed. 3. The Tenth Part of all the produce of the 
fields and vineyards, the collection and management of 
which seem to have been confided to the officers mention- 
ed in 1 Kings iv. 7, and in 1 Chron. xxvii. 25. It is also 
probable from 1 Kings x. 14, that the Israelites likewise 
paid a tax in money. 4. A portion of the spoil of con- 
quered nations, (2 Sam. viii.) upon whom tributes or im- 
posts were also laid ; (1 Kings iv. 21. Psal. lxxii. 10, com- 
pared with 1 Chron. xxvii. 25 — 31 ;) and, lastly, 5. The Cus- 
toms paid to Solomon, by the foreign merchants who passed 
through his dominions, (1 Kings x. 15,) afforded a consi- 
derable revenue to that monarch : who, as the Mosaic 
laws did not encourage foreign commerce, carried on a 
very extensive and lucrative trade, (1 Kings x. 22,) parti- 
cularly in Egyptian horses, and the byssus, or fine linen 
of Egypt. (1 Kings x. 28,29.) 

Besides the kings, there were some inferior magistrates, 
who, though their origin may be traced to the time of 
Moses, continued to retain some authority, after the esta- 
blishment of the monarchy. Of this description were, 1. 
the Heads, or Princes of Tribes, who appear to have 
watched over the interest of each tribe ; they were twelve 
in number ; and, 2. The Heads of Families, who are 
sometimes called Heads of Houses of Fathers, and some- 
times simply heads. These are likewise the same persons 
who, in Josh, xxiii. 2, and xxiv. 1, are called Elders. 
(Compare also Deut. xix. 12, and xxi. 1 — 9.) It does not 
appear in what manner these heads, or elders of families, 
were chosen, when any of them died. The princes of 
tribes do not seem to have ceased with the commence- 
ment, at least, of the monarchy : from 1 Chron. xvii. 
16 — 22, it is evident that they subsisted in the time of 
David ; and they must have proved a very considerable 
restraint upon the power of the king. 

V. The kingdom which had been founded bv Saul, and 
16* 



186 POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS 

carried to its highest pitch of grandeur and power by 
David and Solomon, subsisted entire for the space of one 
hundred and twenty years ; until Rehoboam, the son and 
successor of Solomon, refused to mitigate the burdens of 
his subjects, when a division of the twelve tribes took 
place ; ten of which, adhering to Jeroboam, formed the 
kingdom of Israel, while the tribes of Judah and Benja 
min, continuing faithful in their allegiance to Eehoboam, 
constituted the kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Is- 
rael subsisted under various sovereigns, during a period 
of 264, or 271 years, according to some chronologers; its 
metropolis, Samaria, being captured by Shalmaneser, king 
of Assyria, b. c. 717, or 719, after a siege of three years ; 
of the Israelites, whose numbers had been reduced by 
immense and repeated slaughters, some of the lower sort 
were suffered to remain in their native country ; but the 
nobles, and all the more opulent persons, were carried into 
captivity beyond the Euphrates. The Kingdom of Judah 
continued 388, or according to some chronologers, 404 
years; Jerusalem, its capital, being taken, the temple 
burnt, and its sovereign, Zedekiah, being carried captive 
to Babylon, by Nebuchadnezzar ; the rest of his subjects 
(with the exception of the poorer classes, who were left in 
Judaea) were likewise carried into captivity, beyond the 
Euphrates, where they, and their posterity, remained 
seventy years, agreeably to the divine predictions. 



CHAPTER II. 

political state of the jews, prom their return from the babylonish 
captivity, to the subversion of their civil and ecclesiastical polity. 

I. Political State of the Jews under the Maccabees 
and the sovereigns of the Herodian Family. 

After the return of the Jews from Babylon, they obey- 
ed the High Priests, from whom the supreme authority 
subsequently passed into the hands of the Maccabean 
Princes. Mattathias was the first of these princes ; and 
was succeeded by his three valiant sons, Judas, Jonathan, 
and Simon, the last of whom was succeeded by his son, 
John Hyrcanus. The name Maccabees is supposed, to 



AFTER THEIR RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 1^7 

have been derived from the four letters, M. C. B. I. which 
are the initial letters of the Hebrew words Mi Chamoka 
Baelim Jehovah, that is, who among the gods is like unto 
thee, O Jehovah? (Exod. xv. 11,) which letters were dis- 
played on their standards. This illustrious house, whose 
princes united the regal and pontifical dignity in their 
own persons, administered the affairs of the Jews, during 
a period of one hundred and twenty-six years ; until 
disputes arising between Hyrcanus II. and his brother, 
Aristobulus, the latter was defeated by the Romans, under 
Pompey, who captured Jerusalem, and reduced Judaea to 
a tributary province of the republic, (b. c. 59.) 

Though Pompey continued Hyrcanus in the high priest- 
hood, he bestowed the government of Judaea on Antipater, 
an Idumaean by birth, who was a Jewish prosefyte, and 
the father of Herod, surnamed the Great, who was sub- 
sequently king of the Jews. Antipater divided Judaea 
between his two sons, Phasael and Herod, giving to the 
former the government of Jerusalem, and to the latter the 
province of Galilee ; which being at that time greatly in- 
fested with robbers, Herod signalized his courage by dis- 
persing them, and shortly after attacked Antigon us, the 
competitor of Hyrcanus in the priesthood, who was sup- 
ported by the Tyrians. In the mean time, the Parthians 
having invaded Judaea, and carried into captivity Hyrca- 
nus, the high priest, and Phasael, the brother of Herod ; 
the latter fled to Rome, where Mark Antony, with the 
consent of the senate, conferred on him the title of king 
of Judaea. By the aid of the Roman arms, Herod, a 
sanguinary and crafty prince, kept possession of his dig- 
nity ; and after three years of sanguinary and intestine 
war with the partizans of Antigonus, he was confirmed 
in his kingdom by Augustus. 

Herod, misnamed the Great, by his will divided his do- 
minions among his three sons, Archelaus, Herod Antipas, 
and Herod Philip. 

To Archelaus he assigned Judaea, Samaria, and Idu- 
maea, with the regal dignity, subject to the approbation of 
Augustus, who ratified his will as it respected the territo- 
rial division, but conferred on Archelaus the title of Eth- 
narch, or chief of the nation, with a promise of the regal 
dignity, if he should prove himself worthy of it. His sub • 



|gg POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS 

sequent reign was turbulent ; and, after repeated com- 
plaints against his tyranny and mal-administration, he was 
deposed and banished by Augustus, and his territories were 
annexed to the Roman province of Syria. 

Herod Antipas, (or Antipater,) another of Herod's sons, 
received from his father the district of Galilee and Peraea, 
with the title of Tetrarch. He is described by Joscphus 
as a crafty and incestuous prince, with which character the 
narratives of the evangelists coincide ; for, having desert- 
ed his wife, the daughter of Aretas king of Arabia, he for- 
cibly took away and married Herodias the wife of his 
brother Herod Philip, a proud and cruel woman, to gra- 
tify whom he caused John the Baptist to be beheaded, 
(Matt. xiv. 3. Mark vi. 17. Luke iii. 19,) who had 
provoked her vengeance by his faithful reproof of their 
incestuous nuptials. Some years afterwards, Herod as- 
piring to the regal dignity in Judaea, was banished together 
with his wife, first to Lyons, in Gaul, and thence into Spain. 

Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis, Gaulonitis, and Bata- 
ncea, is mentioned but once in the New Testament, (Luke 
iii. 1 :) on his decease without issue, after a reign of thirty- 
seven years, his territories were annexed to the province 
of Syria. 

Agrippa, or Herod Agrippa, was the son of Aristobulus, 
and grandson of Herod the Great, and sustained various 
reverses of fortune previously to his attainiug the royal 
dignity. He governed his dominions much to the satisfac- 
tion of his subjects, (for whose gratification he put to 
death the apostle James, and meditated that of St. Peter, 
who was miraculously delivered, Acts xii. 2 — 17 ;) but 
being inflated with pride on account of his increasing 
power and grandeur, he was struck with a noisome and 
painful disease, of which he died at Caesarea in the man- 
ner related by St. Luke. (Acts xii. 21. — 23.) 

Agrippa junior, was the son of the preceding Herod 
Agrippa : being only seventeen years of age at the time 
of his father's death, he was judged to be unequal to the 
task of governing the whole of his dominions. These 
were again placed under the direction of a Roman procu- 
rator or governor, and Agrippa was first king of Chalcis, 
and afterwards of Batanasa, Trachonitis, and Abilene, to 
which other territories were subsequently added. It was 



AFTER THEIR RETURN PROM CAPTIVITY. jgg 

before this Agrippa and his two sisters, Bernice and Dru- 
silla the wife of the Roman governor Felix, that St. Paul 
delivered his masterly defence. (Acts xxvi.) 

II. Political State of the Jews under the Roman Pro- 
curators. 

The Jewish kingdom, which the Romans had created 
in favour of Herod the Great, was of short duration ; ex- 
piring on his death, by his division of his territories, and 
by the dominions of Archelaus, (which comprised Sama- 
ria, Judaea, and Idumaea,) being reduced to a Roman 
province, annexed to Syria, and governed by the Roman 
procurators. These officers not only had the charge of 
collecting the imperial revenues, but also had the power 
of life and death in capital causes ; and on account of 
their high dignity they are sometimes called Governors. 
Though the Jews did not enjoy the power of life and 
death, yet they continued to possess a large share of civil 
and religious liberty ; and lived pretty much after their 
own laws. Three of these procurators are mentioned in 
the New Testament, viz. : Pilate T Felix, and Festus. 

1. Pontius Pilate was sent to govern Judoea, a. d. 26 
or 27. He was a cruel and unjust governor ; and dread- 
ing the extreme jealousy and suspicion of Tiberius, he de- 
livered up the Redeemer to be crucified, contrary to the 
conviction of his better judgment, and in the vain hope 
of conciliating the Jews whom he had oppressed. After 
he had held his office for ten years, having caused a num- 
ber of innocent Samaritans to be put to death, that inju- 
red people sent an embassy to Vitellius, proconsul of Sy- 
ria : by whom he was ordered to Rome, to give an ac- 
count of his mal-administration to the emperor. But Ti- 
berius being dead before he arrived there, his successor, 
Caligula, banished him to Gaul: where he is said to have 
committed suicide, about the year of Christ 41. 

2. On the death of king Herod Agrippa, Judasa being 
again reduced to a Roman province, the government of it 
was confided to Antonius Felix : he liberated that 
country from banditti and impostors ; (the very worthy 
deeds alluded to by Tertullus, Acts xxiv. 2 ;) but he was 
in other respects a cruel and avaricious governor, inconti- 
nent, intemperate, and unjust. So oppressive at length 
did his administration become, that the Jews accused him 



190 POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS, ETC 

before Nero, and he with difficulty escaped condign pun- 
ishment. His wife, Drusilla, (mentioned Acts xxiv. 24,) 
was the sister of Agrippa junior, and had been married to 
Azizus king of the Emesenes: Felix, having fallen despe- 
rately in love with her, persuaded her to abandon her le- 
gitimate husband and live with him. The knowledge of 
these circumstances materially illustrates Acts xxiv. 25, 
and shows with what singular propriety St. Paul reasoned 
of righteousness, temperance, and a judgment to come. 
On the resignation of Felix, the government of Judaea 
was committed to 

3. Portius Festus, before whom Paul defended him- 
self against the accusations of the Jews, (Acts xxv,) and 
appealed from his tribunal to that of Caesar. Finding his 
province overrun with robbers and murderers, Festus 
strenuously exerted himself in suppressing their outrages. 
He died in Judaea about the year 62. 

The situation of the Jews under the two last-mentioned 
procurators was truly deplorable. Distracted by tumults, 
excited on various occasions, their country was overrun 
with robbers, that plundered all the villages whose inhab- 
itants refused to listen to their persuasions, to shake off 
the Roman yoke. Justice was sold to the highest bidder ; 
and even the sacred office of high priest, was exposed 
to sale. But, of all the procurators, no one abused his 
power more than Gessius Florus, a cruel and sanguinary 
governor, and so extremely avaricious, that he shared 
with the robbers in their booty, and allowed them to fol- 
low their nefarious practices with impunity. Hence, con- 
siderable numbers of the wretched Jews, with their fami- 
lies, abandoned their native country ; while those who 
remained, being driven to desperation, took up arms 
against the Romans, and thus commenced that war, 
which terminated in the destruction of Judaea, and the 
taking away of their name and nation. 






COURTS OF JUDICATURE, ETC. 19| 



CHAPTER III. 

COURTS OF JUDICATURE, LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, CRIMINAL LAW, AND PUNISHMENTS 
OF THE JEWS. 

Section I. — Jewish Courts of Judicature, and Legal Proceedings. 

On the settlement of the Israelites in the land of Ca- 
naan, Moses commanded them to appoint judges and offi 
ters in all their gates throughout their tribes. (Deut. xvi. 
18.) The priests and Levites, who from their being de- 
voted to the study of the law were consequently best 
skilled in its various precepts, and old men who were 
eminent for their age and virtue, administered justice to 
the people : in consequence of their age, the name of 
Elders became attached to them. Many instances of this 
kind occur in the New Testament : they were also called 
Rulers. (Luke xii. 58, where ruler is synonymous with 
judge.) 

In the early ages of the world, the Gate of the City 
was the seat of justice ; (Gen. xxiii. 10. Deut. xxi. 19, xxv. 
6, 7,) on which account, in the time of Moses, the judges 
appear to have been termed the Elders of the Gate. 
(Deut. xxii. 15, xxv. 7. Isa. xxix. 21.) 

From these inferior tribunals, appeals lay to a higher 
court, in cases of importance. (Deut. xvii. 8—12. 

But the highest and most eminent tribunal of the Jews, 
after their return from the Babylonish captivity, was the 
Sa?ihedrin, or Great Council, so often mentioned in the 
New Testament. It consisted of seventy or seventy-two 
members, under the chief presidency of the high priest, 
under whom was a vice-president, called the Father of the 
Council. These assessors comprised three descriptions 
of persons, viz.: 1. The Chief Priests, who were partly 
such priests as had executed the Pontificate, and partly 
the princes or chiefs of the twenty-four courses or classes 
of priests, who enjoyed this honourable title ; — 2. The 
Elders, perhaps the princes of tribes or heads of families ; 
— and 3. The S;ribes, or men learned in the law. It does 
not appear that all the elders and scribes were members 
of this tribunal : most probably those only were assessors 
who were either elected to the office, or nominated to it 
by royal authority. 



192 COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 

Besides the Sanhedrin, the Talmudical writers assert 
that there were other smaller councils, each consisting of 
twenty-three persons who heard and determined petty 
causes : two of these were at Jerusalem, and one in every 
city containing one hundred and twenty inhabitants. Jo- 
sephus is silent concerning these tribunals, but they cer- 
tainly appear to have existed in the time of Jesus Christ: 
who, by images taken from these two courts, in a very 
striking manner represents the different degrees of future 
punishments, to which the impenitently wicked wili be 
doomed according to the respective heinousness of their 
crimes. See Matt. v. 22. 

These various tribunals had their inferior ministers or 
officers, who are alluded to in Matt. v. 25. 

It appears from Jer. xxi. 12, that causes were heard, 
and judgment was executed in the morning; and at first 
every one pleaded his own cause; (1 Kings iii. 16 — 28;) 
though, in succeeding ages, the Jews seem to have had 
advocates, for Tertullus was retained against St. Paul. 
(Acts xxiv. 1,2.) 

On the day appointed for hearing the cause, the parties 
appeared before the judges ; who, in criminal cases, ex- 
horted the culprit to confess his crime. (Josh. vii. 19.) 
In matters of life and death, the evidence of two or three 
credible witnesses was indispensable. (Num. xxxv. 30. 
Deut xvii. 6, 7, xix. 15.) All perjury was most severely 
prohibited. (Exod. xx. 16, xxiii. 1 — 3.) Recourse was, 
in certain cases, had to the sacred lot, called Urim and 
Thummim, in order to discover the guilty party. (Josh, 
vii. 14—18. 1 Sam. xiv. 37—45.) 

Sentences were only pronounced in the daytime, as ap- 
pears from Luke xxii. 66. Where persons had rendered 
themselves obnoxious to the populace, it was usual (and 
the same practice still obtains in the East) for them to de- 
mand prompt justice on the supposed delinquents. This 
circumstance illustrates Acts xxii. 28 — 36. As soon as 
sentence of condemnation was pronounced against a per- 
son, he was immediately dragged from the court to the 
place of execution. Thus our Lord was instantly hurried 
from the presence of Pilate to Calvary : a similar in- 
stance of prompt execution occurred in the case of Achan ; 
and the same practice obtains to this day, both in Turkey 






LEGAL PROCEEDINGS ETC. OF THE JEWS J 93 

and Persia. So zealous were the Jews for the observance 
of their law, that they were not ashamed themselves to 
be the executioners of it, and to punish criminals with 
their own hands. In stoning persons, the witnesses threw 
the first stones, agreeably to the enactment of Moses. 
(D-eut xvii. 7.) Thus the witnesses against the protomar- 
tyr Stephen, after laying down their clothes at the feet of 
Saul, stoned him: (Acts vii. 58, 59:) and to this custom 
there is an allusion in John viii. 7. As there were no 
public executioners in the more ancient periods of the 
Jewish history, it was not unusual for persons of distin- 
guished rank themselves to put the sentence in execution 
upon offenders. See an instance in 1 Sam. xv. 33. 

But in whatever manner the criminal was put to death, 
according to the Talmudical writers, the Jews always 
gave him some wine with incense in it, in order to stupify 
and intoxicate him. This custom is said to have origi- 
nated in the precept, recorded in Prov. xxxi. 6, which suf- 
ficiently explains the reason why wine mingled with 
myrrh, was offered to Jesus Christ when on the cross. 
CMark xv. 23. 



Section II. — Roman Judicature, Manner of Trial, and Treatment of 
Prisoners. 

Wherever the Romans extended their power, they also 
carried their laws ; and though, as we have already seen, 
they allowed their conquered subjects to enjoy the free 
performance of their religious worship, as well as the ex- 
ercise of some inferior courts of judicature, yet in all 
cases of a capital nature the tribunal of the Roman prefect 
or president was the last resort. Without his permission 
no person could be put to death at least in Judasa. 

The Roman law forbade any one especially Roman citi- 
zens, to be scourged or condemned, unheard and without 
a trial. To this St. Paul alludes in Acts xxii. 25. Nei- 
ther could a Roman citizen be legally bound, in order to 
be examined by scourging, or by any other mode of tor- 
ture, for the purpose of obtaining a confession. When 
therefore, the tribune, Lysias, not knowing that the apos- 
tle enjoyed the citizenship of Rome, had commanded that 



194 COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 

he should be bound and examined with thongs, and was 
subsequently informed that he was a citizen, the sacred 
historian relates that he was afraid, after he knew that he 
was a Roman, and because he had bound him. (Acts xxii, 
29.) Further, Roman citizens had the privilege of ap- 
pealing to the imperial tribunal ; and this privilege the 
same apostle exercised. (Acts xxv. 9 — 12. 

"The Roman method of fettering and confining crimi- 
nals was singular. One end of a chain, that was of com- 
modious length, was fixed about the right arm of the pri- 
soner, and the other end was fastened to the left arm of a 
soldier. Thus a soldier was coupled to the prisoner, 
and every where attended and guarded him. This man- 
ner of confinement is frequently mentioned, and there 
are many beautiful allusions to it in the Roman writers. 
Thus was St. Paul confined. Fettered in this manner, 
he delivered his apology before Festus, king Agrippa, and 
Bernice." (Acts xxvi. 29.) 

Sometimes the prisoner was fastened to two soldiers, 
one on each side, wearing a chain both on his right and 
left hand. St. Paul at first was thus confined. When 
the tribune received him from the hands of the Jews, he 
commanded him to be bound with two chains. (Acts xxi. 
33.) In this manner was Peter fettered and confined by- 
Herod Agrippa. The same night Peter was sleeping be- 
tween two soldiers^ bound with two chains. (Acts xii. 6.) 
If these soldiers appointed to guard criminals, and to 
whom they were chained, suffered the prisoner to escape, 
they were punished with death ; (Acts xii. 19 ;) and the 
same punishment appears to have awaited gaolers, who 
permitted their prisoners to escape. (Acts xvi. 27.) 

Though not strictly a Roman tribunal, yet as its sittings 
were permitted by the Roman government, the senate and 
court of Areopagus, at Athens, claims a concise notice in 
♦*»is nlace. It took cognizance, among other things, of 
matters ot religion, the consecration of new gods, the 
erection of temples and altars, and the introduction of 
new ceremonies into divine worship. On this account, 
Saint Paul was brought before the tribunal of the Areo- 
pagus, as a setter forth of strange gods, because he preach- 
ed unto the Athenians Jesus and Avas-aais, ( Anaslasis,) or 
the Resurrection. (Acts xvii. 19.) Its sittings were held 



LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 195 

on the ApeiosJlayoi,(Are'ios Pagos, or Hill of Mars, whence 
its name was derived,) which is situated in the midst of 
the city of Athens. 



Section III. — On the Criminal Law of the Jews. 

I. Crimes against God. — The government of the Is- 
raelites being a Theocracy, that is, one in which the su- 
preme legislative power was vested in the Almighty, who 
was regarded as their king, it was to be expected that, in 
a state confessedly religious, crimes against the Su- 
preme Majesty of Jehovah should occupy a primary 
place in the statutes given by Moses to that people. Ac- 
cordingly 

1 . Idolatry, that is, the worship of other gods, in the 
Mosaic law occupies the first place in the list of crimes. 
An Israelite therefore was guilty of idolatry, 

(1.) When he actually worshipped other gods besides 
Jehovah, the only true God. This crime is prohibited in 
Exod. xx. 3. 

(2.) By worshipping images, whether of the true God 
under a visible form, to which the Israelites were but too 
prone, (Exod. xxxii. 4, 5. Judg. xvii. 3, xviii. 4 — 6. 14 — 17. 
30, 31, vi. 25—33, viii. 24—27. 1 Kings xii. 26—31,) 
or of the images of the gods of the Gentiles, of which 
we have so many instances in the sacred history. All 
image-worship whatever is expressly forbidden in Exod, 
xx. 4, 5 ; and a curse is denounced against it in Deut. 
xxvii. 15. 

(3.) By prostration before, or adoration of, suchimages t 
or of any thing else revered as a god, such as the sun, 
moon, and stars. (Exod. xx. 5, xxxiv. 14. Deut. iv. 19.) 
This prostration consisted in falling down on the knees, 
and at the same time touching the ground with the fore- 
head. 

(4.) By having altars or groves dedicated to idols, or 
images thereof; all which the Mosaic law required to bo 
utterly destroyed ; (Exod xxxiv. 13. Deut. vii. 5, xii. 13;) 
and the Israelites were prohibited, by Deut. vii. 25 26, 



196 COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 

from keeping, or even bringing into their houses, the gold 
and silver that had been upon any image, lest it should 
prove a snare, and lead them astray. 

{5.) By offering sacrifices to idols, which is forbidden in 
Levit. xviii. 1 — 7, especially human victims, which is 
prohibited in Levit. xviii. 21. Deut. xii. 30. and xviii. 10. 

(6.) By eating of offerings made to idols, made by other 
people, who invited them to their offering-feasts. Though 
no special law was enacted against thus attending the 
festivals of their gods, it is evidently presupposed as un- 
lawful in Exod. xxxiv. 15. 

Idolatry was punished by stoning the guilty individual. 
When a whole city became guilty of idolatry, it was con- 
sidered in a state of rebellion against the government, 
and was treated according to the laws of war. Its inha- 
bitants, and all their cattle, were put to death ; no spoil 
was made, but every thing which it contained was burnt, 
together with the city itself ; nor was it ever allowed to 
be rebuilt. (Deut. xiii. 13 — 19.) This law does not ap- 
pear to have been particularly enforced : the Israelites, 
from their proneness to adopt the then almost universally 
prevalent polytheism, in most cases overlooked the crime 
of a city that became notoriously idolatrous ; whence it 
happened, that idolatry was not confined to any one city, 
but soon overspread the whole nation. In this case, 
when the people, as a people, brought guilt upon them- 
selves by their idolatry, God reserved to himself the in- 
fliction of the punishments denounced against that na- 
tional crime ; which consisted in wars, famines, and other 
national judgments. (Lev. xxvi. Deut. xxviii., xxix., xxxii.) 
For the crime of seducing others to the worship of strange 
gods, the appointed punishment was stoning to death. 
(Deut. xiii. 2 — 12.) In order to prevent the barbarous 
immolation of infants, Moses denounced the punishment 
of stoning upon those who offered human sacrifices; 
which the by-standers might instantly execute upon the 
delinquent, when caught in the act, without any judicial 
inquiry whatever. (Levit. xx. 2.) 

2. God being both the sovereign and the legislator of 
the Israelites, Blasphemy, that is, the speaking injuriously 
of his name, his attributes, his government, and his reve- 



LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. J 97 

lation, was not only a crime against Him, but also against 
the state ; it was therefore punished capitally by stoning. 
(Lev. xxiv. 10—14.) 

3. It appears from Deut. xviii. 20 — 22, that a False 
Prophet was punished capitally, being stoned to death. 

4. Divination, or the conjecturing of future events, 
from things supposed to presage them, is expressly prohi- 
bited in Levit. xix. 26. 31, xx. 6. 23. 27, and Deut. 
xviii. 9 — 12. The punishment of the party consulting a 
diviner, was reserved to God himself; (Levit. xx. 6 ;) 
but the diviner himself was to be stoned. (Levit. xx. 27.) 

5. Perjury is, by the Mosaic law, most peremptorily 
prohibited as a most heinous sin against God, to whom 
the punishment of it is left. 

II. Crimes against Parents and Magistrates con- 
stitute an important article of the criminal law of the 
Hebrews. 

1. In the form of government among that people, we 
recognise much of the patriarchal spirit ; in consequence 
of which, fathers enjoyed great rights over their families. 
The cursing of parents, that is, not only the imprecation 
of evil on them, but probably also all rude and reproach- 
ful language towards them, was punished with death ; 
(Exod. xxi. 17. Levit. xx. 9;) as likewise was the strik- 
ing of them. (Exod. xxi. 15.) An example of the crime 
of cursing a parent, which is fully in point, is given by 
Jesus Christ in Matt. xv. 4 — 6, or Mark vii. 9 — 12. 
Both these crimes are included in the case of the stub- 
born, rebellious, and drunkard son ; whom his parents 
were unable to keep in order, and who, when intoxicated, 
endangered the lives of others. Such an irreclaimable 
offender was to be punished with stoning. (Deut. xxi. 18 
— 21.) Severe as this law may seem, we have no in- 
stance recorded of its being carried into effect ; but it 
must have had a most salutary operation in the prevention 
of such crimes. 

2. Civil government being an ordinance of God, pro- 
vision is made in all well regulated states for respecting 
the persons of magistrates. All reproachful words, or 
curses, uttered against persons invested with authority, 
are prohibited in Exod. xxii. 28. No punishment, how- 

17* 



19S COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 

ever, is specified ; probably it was left to the discretion of 
the judge, and was different, according to the rank of the 
magistrate and the extent of the crime. 

III. The Crimes, or Offences against Property, men- 
tioned by Moses, are theft, man-stealing, and the denial 
of any thing taken in trust, or found. 

1. On the crime of Theft, Moses imposed the punish- 
ment of double (and in certain cases still higher) restitu- 
tion; and if the thief was unable to make it, he was or- 
dered to be sold for a slave, and payment was to be made 
to the injured party, out of the purchase money. (Exod. 
xxii. 1. 3.) The same practice obtains, according to 
Chardin, among the Persians. If, however, a thief, after 
having denied, even upon oath, any theft with which he 
was charged, had the honesty, or conscience, to retract 
his perjury, and to confess his guilt, instead of double 
restitution, he had only to repay the amount stolen, and 
one-Jifth more. (Levit. vi. 2. 5.) In case of debt also, 
the creditor might seize the debtor's person, and sell him, 
together with his wife and children, if he had any. This 
is inferred from the words of the statute, in Levit. xxv. 
39. There is an allusion to this custom in Job xxiv. 9 ; 
and a case in point is related in 2 Kings iv. 1. This 
practice also obtained among the Jews, in the days of Ne- 
hemiah, (v. 1 — 5,) and Jesus Christ refers to it in Matt, 
xviii. 25. 

2. Man-stealing, that is, the seizing, or stealing of the 
person of a free-born Israelite, was absolutely and irre- 
missibly punished with death. (Exod. xxi. 16. Deut. 
xxiv. 7.) 

3. Where a person was judicially convicted of having 
denied any thing committed to his trust, or found by him, 
his punishment, as in the case of theft, was double resti- 
tution. If the person accused of this crime had sworn 
himself guiltless, and afterwards, from the impulse of his 
conscience, acknowledged the commission of perjury, he 
had only one-fifth beyond the value of the article denied, 
to refund to its owner. (Levit. vi. 5.) 

IV. Among the Crimes which may be committed 

AGAINST THE PERSON, 

1. Murder claims the first place. As this is a crime 



LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 199 

of the most heinous nature, Moses has described four 
necessary circumstances, or marks, by which to distin- 
guish it from simple homicide, or manslaughter, viz. : 1. 
When it proceeds from hatred, or enmity. (Numb. xxxv. 
20, 21. Deut. xix. 11.) 2. When it proceeds from thirst 
of blood, or a desire to satiate revenge with the blood of 
another. (Numb. xxxv. 20.) 3. When it is committed 
vremeditatedly and deceitfully. (Exod. xxi. 14.) 4. When 
a man lies in wait for another, falls upon him, and slays 
him. (Deut. xix. 11.) The punishment of murder wa« 
death, without all power of redemption. 

2. Homicide, or Manslaughter, is discriminated by the 
following adjuncts, or circumstances: 1. That it takes 
place without hatred or enmity. (Numb. xxxv. 22. Deut. 
xix. 4 — 6.) 2. Without thirst for revenge. (Exod. xxi. 
13. Numb. xxxv. 22.) 3. When it happens by mistake. 
(Numb. xxxv. 11. 15.) 4. By accident, or (as it is term- 
ed in the English law) chance-medley. (Deut. xix. 5.) 
The punishment of homicide was confinement to a city 
of refuge. 

3. For other corporal injuries of various kinds, diffe- 
rent statutes were made, which show the wisdom and hu- 
manity of the Mosaic laws. See Exod. xxi. 18, 19, 22 — 
27, and Levit. xxiv. 19—22. 

4. Adultery, and another crime not to be named, were 
both punished with death. (Levit. xx. 10, xviii. 22, 23, 
and xx. 13. 15, 16.) 

V. Crimes of Malice were punished with equal jus- 
tice and severity. 

Malicious informers were odious in the eye of the law ; 
(Levit. xix. 16 — 18 ;) and the publication of false reports, 
affecting the characters of others, is expressly prohibited 
in Exod. xxiii. 1 ; as also is all manner of false witness, 
even though it were to favour a poor man. But where a 
person was convicted of having borne false testimony 
against an innocent man, he suffered the very same pu- 
nishment which attended the crime of which he accused 
his innocent brother. (Deut. xix. 16 — 21.) 



OQQ COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 



Section IV.— On the Punishments mentioned in the Scriptures. 

The Punishments, mentioned in the sacred writings, 
are usually divided into two classes, — non-capital, and 
capital. 

I. The non-capital, or inferior punishments, were as 
follow : 

1. Scourging ; this was the most common corporal 
punishment under the Mosaic law. It is frequently men- 
tioned, both in the Old and New Testaments ; and in 
order that the legal number of forty stripes might not be 
exceeded, it was inflicted with a scourge consisting of 
three lashes, so that the party received only thirteen 
blows, or forty stripes, save one. 

2. Retaliation, (Exod. xxi. 24,) or returning like for 
like, was the punishment of corporal injuries to another. 
It is expressly forbidden by Jesus Christ, in Matt. v. 
38, 39. 

3. Restitutio?! of things stolen, and for various other 
injuries done to the property of another person. (Exod. 
xxi. 32, 33, 34. 36, xxii. 6. Levit. xxiv. 18.) 

4. Compensation to an injured party, to induce him to 
depart from his suit, was permitted, at least in one case, 
(Exod. xxi. 30,) but was forbidden in the case of murder 
and homicide. (Num. xxxv. 31, 32.) 

5. Sin and Trespass Offerings were also in the nature 
of punishments : the various cases for which they were 
to be made, are specified in Levit. iv. 2, v. 1. 4 — 7. 14, 
15, vi. 1—7, and xix. 22. 

6. Imprisonment, though not enjoined by Moses, was 
practised, both during the Jewish monarchy, and in the 
time of Christ. In Gen. xli. 14, Jer. xxxviii. 6, Zech. 
ix., and Acts v. 18, there are allusions to inner prisons or 
dungeons, where the persons confined were very harshly 
treated ; especially as the ancient gaolers (like those in the 
East to this day) had a discretionary power to treat the 
prisoners just as they pleased. To this painful situation 
of prisoners, there are allusions in Psal. lxxix. 11. and 
Jer. xxxvii. 16 — 20. 

7. Banishment was not introduced among the Jews 
until after the captivity. It also existed among the Ro- 



LEGAL ritOCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 201 

mans. St. John was banished to the isle of Patmos. 
(Rev. i. 9.) 

8. In the East, anciently, as well as in modern times, 
prisoners were deprived of their eyes. See instances in 
Judg. xvi. 21, and 2 Kings xxv. 7. 

9. Plucking off the hair, with great violence, was both 
a painful and ignominious punishment. It is alluded to 
in Neh. xiii. 25. 

10. Excommunication, or exclusion from sacred wor- 
ship, was a civil, as well as an ecclesiastical punishment, 
which varied in the degrees of its severity. The first, 
called Nidui, was simply casting out of the synagogue, 
(John ix. 22, xvi. 2, &c.,) and was in force for thirty days, 
which might be shortened. In the second, termed Cherem, 
or anathema, the excommunicated party was delivered 
over to Satan, and devoted by a solemn curse. To this 
St. Paul alludes in 1 Cor. v. 5, and Rom. ix. 2. The third 
degree was called Sham-Atha, or Maran-Atha, i. e. the 
Lord cometh, or may the Lord come ; and intimated that 
the party had nothing more to expect but the terrible day 
of judgment. The effects of excommunication were 
dreadful : the individuals against whom it was fulminated 
were debarred of all social intercourse, and the privilege 
of divine worship, and were subjected to various civil 
disabilities. 

11. Eleven different sorts of Capital Punishments are 
mentioned in the Scriptures, viz. : 

1. Slaying with the sword, which appears to have been 
inflicted in any way in which the executioner thought 
proper. This was the punishment of murder : but in 
the case of homicide, if the next of kin, called Goel, or 
the Blood-avenger, overtook and slew the unintentional 
man-slayer, before he reached an asylum, he was not con- 
sidered to be guilty of blood. The man-slayer was theie- 
fore enjoined to flee to one of the six cities of refuge, 
which, if he reached, he was immediately protected ; and 
an inquiry was instituted, whether he had deliberately, or 
accidentally caused his neighbour's death. In the former 
case he was judicially delivered to the goel, who might 
put him to death in any way that he chose ; in the latter, 
the homicide continued to reside in the place of refuge 
until the high priest's death : yet, if the goel found him 



202 COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 

without the city, or its suburbs, he might slay him, with- 
out being guilty of blood. (Numb. xxxv. 26, 27.) There 
is a beautiful allusion to the goel in Heb. vi. 17, 18, 

2. Stoning was denounced against idolaters, blasphe- 
mers, Sabbath-breakers, and other criminals, mentioned in 
Levit. xx. 2. 27, xxiv. 14. Deut. xiii. 10, xvii. 5, xxi. 21, 
and xxii. 21. 24. The witnesses threw the first stones, 
and the rest of the people followed. The frequent taking 
up of stones, by the Jews, against our Saviour, mention- 
ed in the New Testament, and also the stoning of Ste- 
phen, (Acts vii. 59,) and of Paul, (Acts xiv. 19,) have 
been referred, erroneously, to this punishment : it belong- 
ed to what was, in the later times of the Jewish common- 
wealth, called the rebels' beating. It was often fatal, and 
was inflicted by the populace on those who had either trans- 
gressed, or were supposed to have transgressed, any pro- 
hibition of the scribes. 

3. Burning alive was the punishment denounced, 
against certain criminals, mentioned inLcvit. xx. 14, and 
xxi. 9. It is also mentioned in Gen. xxxviii. 24. Jer. 
xxix. 22, and Dan. iii. 6. 

The preceding are the only capital punishments de- 
nounced in the Mosaic Law : in subsequent times others 
were introduced among the Jews, as their intercourse in- 
creased with foreign nations ; viz. : 

4. Beheading. It is mentioned in Gen. xl. 19, Matt. 
xiv. 8—12, and Mark vi. 27. 

5. Precipitation, or casting headlong from a window, 
though rarely used, yet was practised on certain occasions. 
See instances in 2 Kings ix. 30 — 33, and 2 Chron. xxv. 12. 

6. Drowning is alluded to in Matt, xviii. 6, but we 
have no proof that it was practised by the Jews. 

7. Bruising, or Pounding in a mortar, is alluded to 
in Prov. xxvii. 22. It is still in use among the Turks. 

8. Dichotomy, or cutting asunder, was a punishment 
inflicted in the countries contiguous to Judaea, (see Dan. 
ii. 5, and iii. 29,) as it still is in Barbary and Persia 

9. Beating to death was in use among the Greeks : it 
was practised by Antiochus towards the Jews, (2 Mace, 
vi. 19. 28. 30,) and is referred to by St. Paul, in Heb. xi. 
35. (Gr. in our version rendered tortured.) 

10. Exposing to ivild Beasts was a punishment among 



LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 203 

the Medes and Persians ; (Dan. vi. 7. 12. 16 — 34 ;) from 
them it passed to the Romans, who either cast slaves 
and vile persons, to wild beasts, to be devoured by them, 
or sent armed men into the theatre to fight with the ani- 
mals. If they conquered, they had their lives and liberty ; 
but if not, they fell a prey to the beasts. To this latter 
usage St. Paul refers in 2 Tim. iv. 17, and 1 Cor. xv. 32. 
11. Crucifixion was a punishment which the ancients 
inflicted only upon the most notorious criminals and male- 
factors ; and it included every idea and circumstance of 
lingering torture, odium, disgrace, and public scandal. 
Hence St. Paul takes occasion to magnify the exceeding 
great love of our Redeemer, in that, ichile we were yet 
sinners, Christ died for us, and, for the joy that was set 
before him, endured the cross, despising the shame and ig- 
nominy attached to it. (Rom. v. 8. Heb. xii. 2.) In this 
punishment, the cross was made of two beams > either 
crossing at the top at right angles, or in the middle of 
their length, like an X. Our Lord appears to have been 
crucified on a cross of the former kind. The horror of 
crucifixion will be evident, when it is considered that the 
person was permitted to hang (the whole weight of his 
body being borne up by his nailed hands and feet, and by 
the projecting piece in the middle of the cross,) until he 
perished through agony and want of food. There are 
instances of crucified persons living in this exquisite 
torture several days. The rites of sepulture were de- 
nied them. Their dead bodies were generally left on 
the crosses on which they were first suspended, and 
became a^prey to every ravenous beast, and carnivorous 
bird. This mode of executing criminals, obtained among 
various ancient nations, especially among the Romans, 
by whom it was inflicted chiefly on vile, worthless, and 
incorrigible slaves. In reference to this, the apostle, de- 
scribing the condescension of Jesus, and his submission 
to this most opprobrious death, represents him as taking 
upon him the form of a servant, (Phil. ii. 7, 8,) and be- 
coming obedient to death, even the death of the cross. All 
the circumstances attending the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, 
as related in the four gospels, agree with the accounts 
given of this punishment by Greek and Roman authors.* 

* For a full detail of these circumstances, which do not admit of abridg- 
ment, see the author's larger Introduction, vol. iii. pp 150—160. 



204 JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES 



CHAPTER IV. 

JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES OP COMPUTING TIME, MENTIONED IN TBK 
SCRIPTURES. 

A knowledge of the different divisions of time men- 
tioned in the Scriptures, will elucidate the meaning of a 
multitude of passages with regard to seasons, circumstan- 
ces, and ceremonies. 

I. The Hebrews computed their Days from evening 
to evening, according to the command of Moses. (Lev, 
xxiii. 32.) 

The Romans had two different computations of their 
days, and two denominations for them. The one they 
called the civil, the other the natural day : the first was 
the same as ours; the second, which was the vulgar com- 
putation, began at six in the morning, and ended at six in 
the evening. The civil day of the Jews varied in length, 
according to the seasons of the year. This portion of 
time was, at first, divided into four parts, (Nehem. ix. 3 ;) 
which, though varying in length according to the seasons, 
could nevertheless be easily discerned from the position, 
or appearance of the sun in the horizon. Afterwards, the 
civil day was divided into twelve hours, which were mea- 
sured either from the position of the sun, or from dials 
constructed for that purpose. 

II. These Hours were equal to each other, but un- 
equal with respect to the different seasons of the year ; 
thus the twelve hours of the longest day in summer were 
much longer than those of the shortest day in winter. 
The Jews computed their hours of the civil day, from six 
in the morning, till six in the evening; thus their first 
hour corresponded with our seven o'clock ; their second 
to our eight ; their third to our nine, &c. 

The night was originally divided into three parts, or 
watches, (Psal. lxiii. 6, xc. 4. Lam. ii. 19. Jud. vii. 19. 
Exod. xiv. 24,) which probably were of unequal length. 
In the time of Jesus Christ, it was divided into four 
watches ; a fourth watch having been introduced among 
the Jews from the Romans. The hour is frequently used 
with great latitude in the Scriptures, and sometimes im- 
plies the space of time occupied by a whole watch. (Matt. 



OF COMPUTING TIME. 205 

xxv. 13, xxvi. 40. Mark xiv. 37. Luke xxii. 59. Rev. 
iii. 3.) 

The Jews reckoned two evenings : the former began 
at the ninth hour of the natural day, or three o'clock in 
the afternoon ; and the latter at the eleventh hour. Thus 
the paschal lamb was required to be sacrificed betioeen 
the evenings. Exod. xii. 6. Lev. xxiii. 4.) 

III. Seven nights and days constituted a Week ; six 
of these were appropriated to labour, and the ordinary 
purposes of life, and the seventh day, or Sabbath, was ap- 
pointed by God to be observed as a day of rest. Besides 
weeks of days, the Jews had weeks of seven years, (the 
seventh of which was called the sabbatical year,) and 
weeks of seven times seven years, or of forty-nine years, 
which were reckoned from one jubilee to another. The 
fiftieth, or jubilee year was celebrated with singular festi- 
vity and solemnity. 

IV. The Hebrews had their Months, which like those 
of all other ancient nations, were lunar ones, being mea- 
sured by the revolutions of the moon, and consisting alter- 
nately of twenty-nine and thirty days. While the Jews 
continued in the land of Canaan, the commencement of 
their months and years was not settled by any astrono- 
mical rules, or calculations, but by the phasis or actual 
appearance of the moon. As soon as they saw the moon, 
they began the month ; but since their dispersion through- 
out all nations, they have had recourse to astronomical 
calculations and cycles, in order to fix the beginning of 
their months and years. 

Originally, the Jews had no particular names for their 
months, but called them the first, second, &c. In Exod. 
xiii. 4, the first month is termed Abib ; in 1 Kings vi. 1 , the 
second is named Zif ; in 1 Kings viii. 2, the seventh is 
named Ethanim ; and the eighth, Bui, in 1 Kings vi. 38 : 
but concerning the origin of these appellations, critics are 
by no means agreed. On their return from the Babylo- 
nish captivity, they introduced the names which they had 
found among the Chaldeans and Persians, and some of 
which are mentioned in the sacred writings. 

V. The Jews had four sorts of years ; one for plants, 
so called, because they paid tithe-fruits of the trees which 
budded at that time ; another for beasts, in which they 

18 



206 



JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES 



paid tithes of the beasts that fell within the year : a third 
for sacred purposes, and the fourth was civil and common 
to all the inhabitants of Palestine. The two last as be- 
ing most known, require briefly to be noticed. 

1, The Ecclesiastical, or Sacred Year, began in 
March, or on the first day of the month Nisan, because at 
that time they departed out of Egypt. From that month 
they computed their feasts, and the prophets also occa- 
sionally dated their oracles and visions. (See Zech. vii. 1.) 
The following table presents the months of the Jewish 
ecclesiastical year, compared with our months : 



ii. 1. [ 
iii. 7.)) 



Nisan or Abib 

(Neh 

Esth. iii 
Jyar or Zif 
Sivan (Esth. viii. 9.) 
Thammuz 
Ab 

Elul (Neh. vi. 15.) 
Tisri - 
Marchesvan - 
Kisleu or Chisleu 
(Zech. vii. 1. Neh. i. 
Thebet 

Sebat (Zech. i. 7.) 
Adar (Ezr. vi. 15. Esth. iii. 7.) 



answering to part of March and April. 



April and May. 
May and June. 
June and July. 
July and August. 
August and September. 
September and October. 
October and November. 

November and December. 



J 



December and January. 
January and February. 
February and March. 



2. The Civil Year, commenced on the fifteenth of our 
September, because it was an old tradition that the world 
was created at that time. From this year the Jews com- 
puted their jubilees, dated all contracts, and noted the 
birth of children, and the reigns of kings. The annexed 
table exhibits the months of the Jewish civil year with the 
corresponding months of our computation : 

corresponds with part of September and October. 



2. Marchesvan -' 


October and November. 


3. Chisleu or Kisleu 


. November and Becember 


4. Thebet 


- December and Janaury. 


5. Sebat • 


- January and February. 


0. Adar - 


. February and March. 


7. Nisan or Abib 


. March and April. 


8. Jyar or Zif 


. April and May 


9. Sivan . 


- May and June. 


10. Thammuz • ■ « 


. June and July. 


11. Ab 


. July and August. 


12. Elul - 


. August and September. 



Some of the preceding names are still in use in Persia. 

As the Jewish years, being regulated by the phases, or 
appearances of the moon, were lunar years, consisting of 
three hundred and fifty-four days and eight hours, it be 



OF COMPUTING TIME. Ctffl 

came necessary to accommodate them to solar years, in 
order that their months, and consequently their festivals, 
might always fall at the same season. For this purpose, 
the Jews added a whole month to the year, as often as it 
was necessary ; which occurred commonly once in three 
years, and sometimes once in two years. This interca- 
lary month was added at the end of the ecclesiastical year, 
after the month Adar, and was therefore called Ve-Adar, 
or the second Adar. 

VI. In common with other nations, the Jews reckoned 
any part of a period of time for the whole, as in Exod. 
xvi. 35. Thus, a part of the day is used for the whole, 
and part of a year for an entire year. An attention to 
this circumstance will explain several apparent contra- 
dictions in the sacred writings ; particularly the account 
of our Lord's resurrection, in Matt, xxvii. 63, and Mark 
viii. 31, three days after, with that of his resurrection 
on the third day, according to Matt. xvi. 21, and Luke 
ix. 22. 

Besides the computation of years, the Hebrews first, 
and the Jews afterwards, were accustomed to reckon their 
time from some remarkable seras, or epochas: as, 1. The 
Lives of the Patriarchs, or other illustrious persons ; (Gen. 
vii. 1, viii. 13 ;) — 2. From their Departure out of Egypt, 
and the first institution of their polity ; (Exod. xix. 1, xl. 
17. Numb. i. 1, ix. 1, xxxiii. 38. 1 Kings vi. 1 ;)— -3. After- 
wards, from the Building of the Temple, (1 Kings ix. 10. 
2 Chron. viii. 1,) and from the reigns of the kings of Ju- 
dah and Israel; — 4. Then from the commencement of 
the Babylonian Captivity. (Ezek. i. 1, xxxiii. 21, xl. 1.) 
Tn process of time they adopted, and for one thousand 
years employed, 5. The sera of the Selucidae, which in the 
books of Maccabees is called the sera of the Greeks ; in 
later times, (1 Mace, xiii.42, xiv.27,)they computed accord- 
ing to the years of the Maccabean princes ; and since the 
compilation of their Talmud, they have reckoned their 
years from the foundation of the world. 



208 TRIBUTES AND TAXES MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 

CHAPTER V. 

OH THE TRIBUTES AND TAXES MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES.— CONTRACTS, 
HOW MADE. 

I. Of Tributes and Taxes. 

On their first departure out of Egypt, the Israelites con 
tributed, upon any extraordinary occasion, according to 
their several ability : after the erection of the tabernacle, 
half a shekel was paid by every male of twenty years and 
upwards, (Exod. xxx. 13, 14,) when the census, or sum of 
the people was taken. On their return from the Babylo- 
nian captivity, an annual payment of the third part of a 
shekel was made towards the temple worship and service ; 
(Neh. x. 32 ;) and in the time of our Saviour, two drachmae 
were paid by every Jew, whether he resided in Palestine 
or elsewhere : besides which, every one, who was so dis- 
posed, made voluntary offerings according as he or she 
was able. (Mark xii. 41 — 44.) 

To supply the Jews, who came to Jerusalem from all 
parts of the Roman Empire, to pay the half-shekel above 
mentioned, with the current coins, money-changers sta- 
tioned themselves at tables in the courts of the temple, 
and chiefly, it should seem, in the court of the Gentiles, 
for which they exacted a small fee. It was the tables on 
which these men trafficked for this unholy gain, which 
were overturned by Jesus Christ. (Matt. xxi. 12.) 

While the Jews were in the height of their prosperity, 
the Moabites and other neighbouring nations were tribu- 
tary to their sovereigns. Afterwards, however, the Jews 
became tributaries to other nations. For a short time they 
were freed from paying tribute under the Maccabean 
Princes ; but after they were conquered by the Romans, 
they were subjected to the payment of a capitation tax of 
a denarius, as well as various other burdens, which they 
paid with great reluctance. This will account for their 
hatred of the Publicans, or Tax gatherers. In the pro- 
vinces of the Roman empire, the tributes were farmed by 
Roman knights, who had under them inferior officers. 
Some of these are called chief publicans, (as Zaccheus,) 
probably because they were receivers-general for large 
districts : others were receivers for some particular post, 



MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, ETC. 

or place. Such was Matthew, who is simply termed a 
publican. 

II, Of Contracts and bargains of Sale. 

Among the Hebrews, and long before them, among the 
Canaanites, the purchase of any thing of consequence was 
concluded, and the price paid, at the gate of the city, as 
the seat of judgment, before all who went out and came 
m. (Gen. xxiii. 16 — 20. Ruth iv. 1, 2.) In process of 
time, the joining, or striking of hands was introduced as a 
ratification of a bargain and sale. This usage was not 
unknown in the days of Job, (xvii. 3,) and Solomon often 
alludes to it. (See Prov. vi. I, xi. 15, xvii. 18, xx. 16, 
xxii. 26, xxvii. 13.) The earliest vestige of written in- 
struments, sealed and delivered for ratifying the disposal 
and transfer of property, occurs in Jer. xxxii. 10 — 12, 
which the prophet commanded Baruch to bury in an 
earthen vessel in order to be preserved for production at 
a future period, as evidence of the purchase, (14, 15.) 
No mention is expressly made of the manner in which 
deeds were anciently cancelled. Some expositors have 
imagined, that in Col. ii. 14, Saint Paul refers to the can- 
celling of them by blotting, or drawing aline across them, 
or by striking them through with a nail ; but we have no 
information whatever from antiquity to authorize such a 
conclusion. 

CHAPTER VI. 

OF THE MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THB JEWS, AND OTHER NATIONS MENTIONED 
IN THE SCRIPTURES. 

I. Respecting the Military Discipline op the Jews, 

numerous particulars are incidentally dispersed through the 
Sacred Writings, for a full account of which the reader 
is necessarily referred to the author's larger work : from 
which the following leading circumstances are selected. 

The earliest wars, noticed in the sacred writings, ap- 
pear to have been nothing more than mere predatory ex- 
cursions, like those of the modern Bedouin Arabs. The 
wars in which the Israelites were engaged, were of two 
kinds, either such as were expressly enjoined by divine 
command, or such as were voluntary, and entered upon 
by the prince for revenging some national affronts, and 
18* 



210 MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, ETC. 

for the honour of his sovereignty. After their departure 
from Egypt, the whole of the men, from twenty years and 
upwards until the age of fifty, (when they might demand 
their discharge if they chose,) were liable to military ser- 
vice, the priests and Levites not excepted. (Numb. i. 3. 
22. 2 Sam. xxiii. 20. 1 Kings ii. 35.) Like the mili 
tia in some countries, they were always ready to assemble 
at the shortest notice. If the occasion were extremely 
urgent, affecting their existence as a people, all were sum- 
moned to war ; but ordinarily, when there was no neces- 
sity for convoking the whole of their forces, a selection 
was made. This mode of choosing soldiers, to which 
there are numerous allusions in the Scriptures, accounts 
for the rapid formation of the vast armies, of which we 
read in the Old Testament. There were, however, cer- 
tain exemptions in favour of particular persons, which are 
specified in Deut. xx. 5—8, xxiv. 5. The officers, who 
were placed at the head of the Hebrew forces, appear 
not to have differed materially from those whom we find 
in ancient and modern armies. The most distinguished 
was the Captain of the Host, (2 Kings iv. 13,) who pos- 
sessed great power and influence, sometimes indeed near- 
ly equal to that of the sovereign, and who appears to have 
been of the same rank with him who is now termed the 
commander in chief of an army. After the establishment 
of the monarchy, this officer, and alsor the captains of 
thousands, hundreds, &c, received their commissions 
from the sovereign; (2 Sam. xviii. 1. 2 Chron. xxv. 5;) 
who at first went to war in person, and fought on foot, like 
the meanest of his soldiers, until David being exposed 
to great danger, his people would no longer allow him to 
lead them on to battle. (2 Kings xxi. 17.) There were 
no horse in the Israelitish army before the time of Solo- 
mon ; nor, though mention is made in Scripture of the 
military chariots of other nations, does it appear that the 
Hebrews ever used war chariots. Solomon, indeed, had 
a considerable number, but no military expedition is re- 
corded, in which he employed them. No information is 
given us in the Scriptures concerning the order of en- 
campment adopted by the Israelites after their settlement 
in Canaan. L>uring their sojourning in the wilderness, the 
form of their camp, according to the account given in 



MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 



211 



Numb. ii. appears to have been quadrangular, having 
three tribes placed on each side, under one general stan- 
dard, so as to enclose the tabernacle, which stood in the 
centre. Between these four great camps and the taber- 
nacle, were pitched four smaller camps of the priests and 
Levites, who were immediately in attendance upon it ; the 
camp of Moses and of Aaron and his sons (who were the 
ministering priests, and had the charge of the sanctuary,) 
was on the east side of the tabernacle, where the entrance 
was. The following diagram, which is reduced from the au- 
thor's larger work, will give the reader an idea of the beau- 
tiful order of the Israelitish Encampment, which extorted 
from the mercenary Balaam, the exclamation related in 
Numb xxiv. 2. 5. 6. 



EAST 



196,400 Men. 
FIRST GRAND DIVISION. 



JUDAH, 

74,600. 

Issachar, and Zebulun, 

54,400 57,400 







MOSES, AARON 








And the Priests. 






„ 








W 


So 




W 










< 




o 








PS 




en i-rt 


<5 


PS 




« 
Eh 




H 
ft 




•099 8 








S3XIW0HSH3O 





s ^ s pW 



•OOt-'SS *005'58 

'uiuiBfuaa puB 'qassBUBj^ 

•ooe'o* 



•NoisiAia (mvho ohihi. 

' ua H 001 '801 



•JL33A1 



During the encampment of the Israelites in the wilder- 
ness, Moses made various salutary enactments, which are 
recorded in Deut. xxiii. 10 — 15. Anciently, the Hebrews 
received no pay for their military service : the Chere- 
thites and Pelethites appear to have been the first stipen- 
diary soldiers. During the monarchy, however, both 
officers and privates were paid by the sovereign, who re- 
warded them for distinguished achievements. (See 2 Sara, 



212 MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, ETC. 

xviiL 11. Jos. xv. 16. 1 Sam. xviii. 25. 1 Chron. xi. 
6.) In the age of the Maccabees, the patriot Simon both 
armed and paid his brave companions in arms at his own 
expense. (1 Mac. xiv. 32.) Afterwards it became an es- 
tablished custom, that all soldiers should receive pay. 
(Luke iii. 14. 1 Cor. ix. 7.) 

From various passages of Scripture, and especially from 
Isa. ii. 4, and Mic. iv. 3, it appears that there were mili- 
tary schools, in which the Hebrew soldiers learned war % 
or, in modern language, were trained by proper officers in 
those exercises which were in use among the other na- 
tions of antiquity. Swiftness of foot was an accomplish- 
ment highly valued, both for attacking and pursuing an 
enemy. The Hebrews do not appear to have had any 
peculiar military habit ; as the flowing dress, which they 
ordinarily wore, would have impeded their movements, 
they girt it closely around them when preparing for bat- 
tle, and loosened it on their return. They used the same 
arms as the neighbouring nations, both defensive and of- 
fensive ; and these were made either of iron or of brass, 
but principally of the latter metal. 

At first every man provided his own arms ; but, after 
the establishment of regal government, the sovereigns 
formed depots, whence they supplied their troops. (2 
Chron. xi. 12, xxvi. 14, 15.) The defensive arms con- 
sisted of a helmet, breast-plate, shield, military girdle, and 
greaves, or boots to protect the feet and legs from stakes, 
which were stuck into the ground to impede the march of 
a hostile force. Their offensive arms were, the sword, 
spear, or javelin, bows and arrows. 

The onset of battle was very violent, and was made 
with a great shout. (Numb.xxiii.24. Exod.xxxii. 17. 1 Sam. 
xvii. 20, 52, &c.) When the victory was decided, the bo- 
dies of the slain were interred, (1 Kings xi. 15. 2 Sam. ii. 
32. 2 Mac. xii. 39,) but sometimes the remains of the slain 
were treated with every possible mark of indignity ; (1 Sam. 
xxxi. 9 — 12 ;) and various cruelties were inflicted upon 
the unhappy captives, from which not even women and 
children were exempted. (2 Sam. iv. 12. Judg. i. 7. 
Isai. iii. 17. 2 Kings viii. 12. Psal. cxxxvii. 9.) 

On their return home, the victors were received with 
every demonstration of joy. (Exod. xv. 1 — 21. Judg. 









MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 213 

xi. 34. 1 Sam. xviii. 7, 8. 2 Chron. xx. 27, 28.) Be- 
sides a share of the spoil and the honours of a triumph, 
various rewards were bestowed on those warriors who had 
pre-eminently distinguished themselves : allusions to them 
occur in 1 Sam. xvii. 25. 2 Sam. v. 8, and xviii. 11. 1 
Chron. xi. 6. 

II. At the time the apostles and evangelists wrote, 
Judsea was subject to the dominion of the Romans, whose 
troops were stationed in different parts of the country. 
Hence numerous allusions are made to the Military 
Discipline of the Romans, in the New Testament, par- 
ticularly in the writings of Saint Paul. See especially 
Eph. vi. 11 — 17, in which the various parts of the ar- 
mour of their heavy troops are distinctly enumerated and 
beautifully applied to those moral and spiritual weapons 
with which the true Christian ought to be fortified. 

The strictest subordination and obedience were exacted 
of every Roman soldier, who was also inured to great 
hardships, and was not allowed to marry. To these cir- 
cumstances there are allusions in Matt. viii. 8, 9, and 2 
Tim. id. 3, 4 ; and Rev. iii. 5, probably refers to tne prac- 
tice of expunging from the muster-roll the names of those 
who died, or were cashiered for misconduct. Upon those 
who pre-eminently distinguished themselves, were confer- 
red rich and splendid crowns, frequently of gold, to which 
there are allusions in Rev. ii. 10, James i. 12, 1 Pet. v 
4, and 2 Tim. iv. 8. But the highest military honour 
which any one could receive, was a Triumph : in which, 
besides great numbers of wagons full of the arms and the 
richest spoils which had been taken from the vanquished 
foe, the most illustrious captives — sovereigns not excepted 
— were led in fetters before the victorious general's cha- 
riot, through the streets of Rome, amidst the applause of 
the assembled multitudes. After the triumphal procession 
was terminated, the unhappy captives were generally im- 
prisoned, and, if not put to death, were sold for slaves. 
The. knowledge of these circumstances beautifully illus- 
trates the allusions in 1 Cor. ii. 14 — 16, and Col. ii. 15. 



214 



BOOK III.— SACRED ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS, AND OF OTHER 
NATIONS MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 



CHAPTER I. 



OF SACRED PLACES. 



The Patriarchs, both before and after the flood, were 
accustomed to worship Almighty God, before altars, and 
also upon mountains, and in groves. (Gen. viii. 20, xii. 8, 
xxi. 33, and xxii. 2.) In the wilderness, where the Israel- 
ites themselves had no settled habitations, they had, by 
God's command, a moving tabernacle ; and as soon as 
they were fixed in the land of promise, God appointed a 
temple to be built at Jerusalem, which David intended, 
and his son Solomon performed. After the first temple 
was destroyed, another was built in the room of it, (Ezra 
iii. 8,) which Christ himself owned for his house of prayer. 
(Matt. xxi. 13.) There were also places of worship, 
called in Scripture High Places, used promiscuously 
during the times of both the tabernacle and temple, until 
the captivity ; and, lastly, there were Synagogues among 
the Jews, and other places used only for prayer, called 
Proseuchai, or oratories, which chiefly obtained after the 
captivity : of these various structures some account will 
be found in the following sections. 



Section I. — Of the Tabernacle. 

Mention is made in the Old Testament of three diffe- 
rent tabernacles, previously to the erection of Solomon's 
temple. The first, which Moses erected for himself, is 
called the tabernacle of the congregation ; (Exod. xxxiii. 
7 ;) here he gave audience, heard causes, and inquired 
of Jehovah; and here also at first, perhaps, the public 
offices of religion were solemnized. The second taber- 
nacle was that erected by Moses, for Jehovah, and at his 



OF SACRED PLACES. 215 

express command, partly to be a palace of his presence 
as the king of Israel, (Exod. xl. 34, 35,) and partly to be the 
medium of the most solemn public worship, which the 
people were to pay to him, (26 — 29.) This tabernacle 
was erected on the first day of the first month, in the 
second year after the departure of the Israelites from 
Egypt. The third public tabernacle was that erected by 
David in his own city, for the reception of the ark, when 
he received it from the house of Obed-edom. (2 Sam. vi. 
7. 1 Chron. xvi. 1.) Of the second of these tabernacles 
we are now to treat ; it was called the Tabernacle, by 
way of distinction, and was a moveable chapel, so con- 
trived as to be taken to pieces, and put together again at 
pleasure, for the convenience of carrying it from place to 
place. The materials of this tabernacle were provided 
by the people, who contributed each according to his 
ability, as related in Exodus, ch. xxxv. and xxxvi. 

The tabernacle consisted, first, of a house, or tent, 
the form of which appears to have resembled that of our 
modern tents, but much larger ; and, secondly, of an open 
court that surrounded it. Its constituent parts are mi- 
nutely described in Exod. xxv. — xxx. and xxxv. — xl. from 
which the following particulars have been selected : 

1. The tent itself was an oblong square, thirty cubits 
in length and ten in height and breadth ; and the body of 
it was composed of forty-eight boards, or planks, each of 
which was a cubit and a half wide, and ten cubits high, 
and its roof was a square frame of planks. The inside 
of it was divided by a veil, or hanging, made of rich em- 
broidered linen, which separated the Holy Place from the 
Holy of Holies. In the former stood the altar of incense, 
overlaid with gold, the table of shewbread, consisting of 
twelve loaves, and the great candlestick of pure gold, con- 
taining seven branches : none of the people were allowed 
to go into the holy place, but only the priests. The Holy 
of Holies, so called because it was the most sacred place 
of the tabernacle, into which none went but the high 
priest, contained in it the ark, called the ark of the testi- 
mony, (Exod. xxv. 22,) or the ark of the covenant. (Josh, 
iv. 7.) This was a small chest, or cofTer, made of shittim 
wood, overlaid with gold, into which were put the two 
tables of the law, as well the broken ones, say the Jews, 






21(3 OF SACRED PLACES. 

as the whole, with the pot of manna, and Aaron's rod 
that budded. (Heb. ix. 4.) 

The lid, or covering of this ark, was wholly of solid 
gold, and called the mercy-seat : at the two ends of it 
were two cherubim, or hieroglyphic figures, the form of 
which it is impossible now to ascertain, looking inwards 
towards each other, with wings expanded, which, embrac- 
ing the whole circumference of the mercy-seat, met on 
each side in the middle. Here the Shechinah, or Divine 
Presence, rested, both in the tabernacle and temple, and 
was visibly seen in the appearance of a cloud over it. 
(Lev. xvi. 2.) From this the divine oracles were given 
out by an audible voice, as often as Jehovah was consult- 
ed on behalf of his people. (Exod. xxv. 22. Numb. vii. 
89.) And hence it is that God is so often said, in Scrip- 
ture, to dwell between the cherubim. (2 Kings xix. 15. 
Psal. lxxx. 1.) 

2. The Tabernacle was surrounded by an oblong court, 
separated by curtains from the camp of Israel. The 
priests, and other sacred ministers, alone were permitted 
to enter it ; the people, who came to offer sacrifices, stop- 
ped at the entrance, opposite to which stood the brazen 
altar for burnt offerings: and nearly in the centre of the 
court stood a capacious brazen vessel, called the brazen 
laver, in which the priests washed their hands and feet 
previously to performing any of their sacred functions. 

The tabernacle being so constructed as to be taken to 
pieces, and put together as occasion required, it accom- 
panied the Israelites in all their progresses, until they ar- 
rived in the land of Canaan. There it was set up, first 
at Gilgal, and afterwards at Shiloh : on being restored by 
the Philistines, who had taken it and deposited it in the 
temple of one of their idols, as related in 1 Sam. iv. 10, 
11, v., vi. ; it remained for twenty years in the custody of 
Abinadab, of Gibeah, and afterwards, for three months, in 
the house of Obed-edom, whence David brought it with 
great solemnity into that part of Jerusalem, which was 
called the city of David. (2 Sam. vi. 17. 1 Chron. xv. 
25, xvi. 1.) Here it remained until it was deposited in 
the temple of Solomon, where, having been subsequently 
removed, it was again replaced by order of the pious 
King Josiah. (2 Chron. xxxv. 3.) It is supposed to have 



OF SACRED PLACES. 



217 



been consumed in the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 



Section IL — Of the Temple. 




Representation of the Golden Candlestick, from the Triumphal Arch 
of Titus. 

Two Temples are mentioned in the Scriptures, 1. 
That of Solomon ; and 2. That erected after the Cap 
ivity. 



218 0F SACRED PLACES. 

I. The first temple is that which usually bears the 
name of Solomon ; the materials for which were provided 
by David before his death, though the edifice was raised 
by his son. It stood on Mount Moriah, an eminence of 
the mountainous ridge, in the Scriptures termed Mount 
Sion, (Psal. cxxxii. 13, 14,) which had been purchased 
of Araunah, or Oman, the Jebusite. (2 Sam. xxiv. 23, 
24. 1 Chron. xxi. 25.) The plan, and whole model of 
this superb structure, were formed after that of the taber- 
nacle, but of much larger dimensions. It was dedicated 
by Solomon with great solemnity. Various attempts 
have been made to describe the proportions, and several 
parts of this structure : but as no two writers, scarcely, 
agree on this subject, a minute description of it is design- 
edly omitted. It retained its pristine splendour only thirty- 
three or thirty-four years, when Shishak, king of Egypt, 
took Jerusalem, and carried away the treasures of the 
temple ; and, after undergoing subsequent profanations 
and pillages, this stupendous building was finally plun- 
dered and burnt by the Chaldaeans, under Nebuchadnezzar, 
in the year of the world 3416, or before Christ, 584. (2 
Kings xxv. 13—15. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 17—20.) 

II. After the captivity, the temple emerged from its ruins, 
being rebuilt by Zerubbabel, but with vastly inferior and 
diminished glory; as appears from the tears of the aged 
men who had beheld the former structure in all its gran- 
deur. (Ezra iii. 12.) The second temple was profaned 
by order of Antiochus Epiphanes ; (a. m. 387, b. c. 163 ;) 
who caused the daily sacrifice to be discontinued, and 
erected the image of Jupiter Olympus on the altar of 
burnt offering. In this condition it continued three years, 
(1 Mace. i. 62,) when Judas Maccabeus purified and re- 
paired it, and restored the sacrifices and true worship of 
Jehovah, (a. m. 3840. b. c. 160.) 

Some years before the birth of our Saviour, the repair- 
ing, or rather gradual rebuilding, of this second temple, 
which had become decayed in the lapse of five centuries, 
was undertaken by Herod the Great, who for nine years 
employed eighteen thousand workmen upon it, and spared 
no expense to render it equal, if not superior, in magni- 
tude, splendour, and beauty, to any thing among man- 
kind. But though Herod accomplished his original de- 



OF SACRED PLACES. 219 

sign, in the time above specified, yet the Jews continued 
to ornament and enlarge it, expending the sacred treasure 
in annexing additional buildings to it ; so that they might 
with great propriety assert, that their temple had been 
forty and six years in building. (John ii. 20.) 

The second temple, originally built by Zerubbabel, 
after the captivity, and repaired by Herod, differed in se- 
veral respects, from that erected by Solomon, although 
they agreed in others. 

The temple erected by Solomon was more splendid and 
magnificent than the second temple, which was deficient 
in five remarkable things that constituted the chief glory 
of the first : these were, the ark and mercy-seat, the 
shechinah, or manifestation of the divine presence in the 
holy of holies, the sacred fire on the altar, which had 
been first kindled from heaven, the urim and thummim, 
and the spirit of prophecy. The second temple, however, 
surpassed the first in glory ; being honoured by the fre- 
quent presence of our divine Saviour, agreeably to the 
prediction of Haggai, (ii. 9.) Both, however, were erect- 
ed upon the same site, a very hard rock, encompassed by 
a very frightful precipice ; and the foundation was laid 
with incredible expense and labour. The superstructure 
was not inferior to this great work : the height of the 
temple wall, especially on the south side, was stupendous. 
In the lowest places it was three hundred cubits, or four 
hundred and fifty feet, and in some places even greater. 
This most magnificent pile was constructed with hard 
white stone of prodigious magnitude. Of its general dis- 
position some idea may be formed from the plan annexed 
to the Map which faces page 163. 

The temple itself, strictly so called, which comprised 
the portico, the sanctuary, and the holy of holies, formed 
only a small part of the sacred edifice on Mount Moriah ; 
being surrounded by spacious courts, making a square of 
half a mile in circumference. It was entered through 
nine magnificent gates : one of which, called the Beauti- 
ful Gate in Acts iii. 2, was more splendid and costly 
than all the rest : it was composed of Corinthian brass, the 
most precious metal in ancient times. The first, or outer 
court, was called the Court of the Gentiles ; because 
they were not permitted to advance any further, though 



220 OF SACRED PLACES. 

they were allowed to enter it. Markets were held here 
for the sale of incense, salt, animals, and every other ar- 
ticle necessary for the Jewish sacrifices. Here also sat 
the money-changers. (Matt. xxi. 12, 13. Mark xi. 15 — 
17.) This court was surrounded by a range of porticoes, 
or cloisters, one of which was called Solomon's Porch. 
(John x. 23. Acts iii. 11.) The south-east corner of the 
roof of this portico is supposed to have been the pinnacle, 
whence Satan tempted Christ to precipitate himself. (Mat. 
iv. 5.) 

Within the court of the Gentiles stood the Court of the 
Israelites, divided into two parts, or courts, the outer one 
being appropriated to the women, and the inner one to 
the men. The Court of the Women was separated from 
that of the Gentiles, by a low stone wall, or partition, of 
elegant construction, on which stood pillars at equal dis- 
tances, with inscriptions in Greek and Latin, importing 
that no alien should enter into the holy place. To this 
wall Saint Paul most evidently alludes in Eph. ii. 13, 14. 
In this court was the Treasury, mentioned in Mark xii. 
41, and John viii. 20. 

From the court of the women, which was on higher 
ground than that of the Gentiles, there was an ascent of 
fifteen steps into the inner, or men's court ; and so called 
because it was appropriated to the worship of the male 
Israelites. In these two courts, collectively termed the 
court of the Israelites, were the people praying, each 
apart by himself, for the pardon of his sins, while 
Zechariah was offering incense within the sanctuary. 
(Luke i. 10.) 

Within the court of the Israelites was that of the 
priests, who alone were permitted to enter it : thence 
twelve steps ascended to the Temple, strictly so called, 
which consisted of three parts, viz. : the Portico, the outer 
Sanctuary, and the Holy Place. 

1. In the Portico were suspended the splendid votive 
offerings, made by the piety of various individuals, which 
are alluded to in Luke xxi. 5. Similar offerings were 
common in the temples of the heathen. From this porch, 

2. The Sanctuary, or Holy Place, was separated from 
the holy of holies by a double veil, which is supposed to 
have been the veil that was rent in twain at our Saviour's 



OF SACRED PLACES. 



221 



crucifixion ; thus emblematically pointing out that the se- 
peration between Jews and Gentiles was abolished, and that 
the privilege of the high priest was communicated to all 
mankind, who might thenceforth have access to the throne 
of grace thr®ugh the one great Mediator, Jesus Christ. 
(Heb. x. 19—22.) 

This corresponded with the Holy Place in the Taber- 
nacle. In it were placed the Golden Candlestick, the 
Altar of Incense, and the Table of Shew-Bread, which 
consisted of twelve loaves, according to the number of the 
tribes of Israel. In the Hebrew, these loaves are collec- 
tively termed, Bread of the faces; because each loaf, being 
square, had, as it were, four faces or sides. Various fan- 
ciful delineations have been given of these articles : in 
the vignette at the head of this section, is represented the 
form of the Golden Candlestick, as it was actually carried 
in the triumphal procession of the Roman General, Titus ; 
and the following engraving exhibits the table of shew- 
bread, with a cup upon it, and with two of the sacred 




trumpets, which were used to proclaim the year of Jubi- 
lee, as they were also carried in the same triumph. They 
are copied from the plates in Reland's Treatise on ihe 
19* 



222 OF SACRED PLACES. 

Spoils of the Temple of Jerusalem,* the drawings for 
which were made at Rome, upwards of a century since, 
when the triumphal arch of Titus (which has been men- 
tioned in p. 23, supra,) was in a much better state of pre- 
servation than it now is. 

3. The Holy of Holies was twenty cubits square. No 
person was ever admitted into it but the high priest, who 
entered it once a year on the great day of atonement. 
(Exod. xxx. 10. Levit. xvi. 2. 15. 34. Heb. ix. 2—7.) 

This most magnificent temple, for which the Jews che- 
rished the highest veneration, was utterly destroyed by the 
Romans, a.m. 4073, (a.d. 73,) on the same day of the same 
month in which Solomon's temple had been razed to the 
ground by the Babylonians 



Section III. — Of the High Places, Proseuchee, or Oratories, of the Jews. 

I. The High Places, which are frequently mentioned 
in the Old Testament, were places appropriated to divine 
worship, in groves, woods, or mountains, first by the pa- 
triarchs, and afterwards by the heathen idolaters, by 
whom they were made the scenes of the most diabolical 
and impure rites. As the Canaanites, among whom the 
Israelites lived, were eminently addicted to this idola- 
trous worship, after a place had been assigned for the 
worship of God, it became unlawful to offer sacrifices upon 
these high places, or any where else, but in the place that 
God did choose. Hence it is that the conduct of the Is- 
raelites, both kings and people, in offering sacrifices even 
after the erection of the temple, is so frequently reprobated 
in the books of Kings and Chronicles. They were 
indeed removed by several pious kings, and particularly 
by Josiah, after whose time they are not mentioned in 
sacred history. 

II. Though public worship was forbidden to be offered 
in any but the appointed place, yet mention is made, in 
Scripture, of places built for private devotion, and resort- 
ed to for that purpose only. These have been termed 

* De Spoliis Hierosolymitani in Arcu Titiano Romae Conspicuis. The 
first edition was printed at Utrecht, in 1716. 8vo. ; the second, with a pre- 
liminary dissertation and notes, by Professor Schultze, in 1765, 8vo. 



OF SACRED PLACES. 223 

Proseuchjs, or Oratories. From the proseucha, (so it 
should be rendered in Luke vi. 12,) where our Lord 
spent a whole night in prayer, being erected on a moun- 
tain, it is probable that these edifices were the same as the 
High Places already noticed. The Jews, who were resi- 
dent in heathen countries, appear to have erected them 
in sequestered retreats, commonly on the banks of rivers, 
or on the sea-shore. The proseucha, or oratory at Philippi, 
where the Lord opened the heart of Lydia, that she attend- 
ed unto the things which were spoken by Paul, was by a 
river side ; (Acts xvi. 13, 14. 16 ;) the Jews being ac- 
customed, before prayer, to perform an ablution. 



Section IV.— On the Synagogues of the Jews. 

The Synagogues were buildings in which the Jews 
assembled for prayer, reading and hearing the sacred 
Scriptures, and other instructions. Though frequently 
mentioned in the historical books of the New Testament, 
their origin is not very well known ; and many learned 
men are of opinion that they are of recent institution. In 
the time of the Maccabees, synagogues became so frequent 
that they were to be found in almost every place in Judaea. 
Maimonides says, that wherever any Jews were, they 
erected a synagogue. Not fewer than four hundred and 
eighty are said to have been erected in Jerusalem, pre- 
viously to its capture and destruction by the Romans. In 
the evangelical history we find, that wherever the Jews 
resided, they had one or more synagogues, constructed 
after those at Jerusalem. It does not appear that the syna- 
gogues had any peculiar form of structure : there were., 
however, various officers whose business it was to see that 
the duties of religion were decently performed therein. 
These were, 1. The Rulers of the Synagogue, (Luke 
xiii. 14. Mark v. 22,) of whom there appear to have 
been several : they regulated all its concerns, and gave 
permission to persons to preach. 2. Next to the Ruler 
of the Synagogue was an officer, whose province it was 
to offer up public prayers to God for the whole congrega- 
tion ; hence he was called Sheliach Zibbor, or the Angel 
of the Church, because, as their messenger, he spoke to 
God for them. Hence also, in Rev. ii., iii. the ministers 



224 



OF SACRED PLACES. 



of the Asiatic churches are termed angels. 3. The 
Chazan appears to have been a different officer from the 
Skeliach Zibbor, and inferior to him in dignity. He seems 
to have been the person, who, in Luke iv. 20, is termed 
the Minister, and had the charge of the sacred books ; 
and whose office it was to hand the book of the law to the 
person who was to read it, and return it to its place. 

The service performed in the synagogue consisted of 
three parts, viz. : prayer, reading the Scriptures, and 
preaching, or exposition of the Scriptures. 

1. The first part of the Synagogue service is Prayer ; 
for which some learned men have thought that the Jews 
had liturgies, in which are all the prescribed forms of 
synagogue-worship. Though the eighteen prayers, used 
by the modern Jews, are of great antiquity, yet they can- 
not be referred to the time of Jesus Christ. 

2. For the more commodious reading of the Scrip- 
tures, the Law was divided into Paraschioth, or Sections, 
and the Prophets into Haphtoroth, or Portions ; of which 
a brief notice has already been given in page 79. 

3. The third and last part of the synagogue service is, 
Exposition of the Scriptures, and Preaching to the 
people. The first was performed at the time of reading 
them, and the other after the reading of the law and the 
prophets. In Luke iv. 15 — 22, we have an account of 
the service of the synagogue in the time of Christ ; who 
appears to have taught the Jews in both these ways. From 
this passage we learn that when Jesus Christ came to 
Nazareth, his own city, he was called out, as a member of 
that synagogue, to read the haphtoroth, that is, the section 
or lesson out of the prophets for that day ; which appears 
to have been the fifty- first haphtoroth, and to have commen- 
ced with the first verse of Isa. lxi. Further, he stood up (as 
it was customary, at least for the officiating minister to do, 
out of reverence for the word of God) to read the scriptures ; 
and unrolled the manuscript (or opened the volume, as it 
is rendered in Luke iv. 17,), until he came to the lesson 
appointed for that day ; which having read, he rolled it 
up again (or closed the book, verse 20,) and gave it to the 
proper officer ; and then he sat down and expounded it, 
agreeably to the usage of the Jews. The ancient books, 
being written on parchment, or vellum, and similar flexi- 






SACRED PERSONS. 225 

ble materials, were rolled round a stick, and, if they were 
very long, round two, from the extremities. This is the 
case in the vignette inserted in page 71,^ which will 
convey some idea of the manner in which the Synagogue 
Rolls are unrolled. It is taken from the original and very 
valuable manuscript in the British Museum, which is 
described at length in p. 71, supra. 

Those who had been guilty of any notorious crime, or 
were otherwise thought unworthy, were cast out of these 
synagogues, that is excommunicated, and excluded from 
partaking with the rest in the public prayers and religious 
offices there performed ; so that they were looked upon 
as mere Heathens, and shut out from all benefit of the 
Jewish religion, which exclusion was esteemed scan- 
dalous. 



CHAPTER II. 

SACRED PERSONS. 

Section I. — Of the Jewish Church and itsMembers, 

From their covenant relation to Almighty God, the whole 
Jewishnation are, in the scriptures, frequently termed holy; 
and the apostles, being Jews by birth, (though they wrote 
in Greek,) have often applied to Christians the phraseology 
of the Old Testament, in order to convey to them accurate 
ideas of the magnitude of God's love to them in Christ. 

The first members of the Jewish Church were the im- 
mediate and lineal descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob ; who professed the Jewish religion and used the 
national language wherever they might reside, and whom 
St. Paul (Phil. iii. 5,) terms Hebrews of the Hebrews, as 
opposed to the Hellinists, or those Jews who lived among 
the Greeks and spoke their language, and many of whom 
(as Timothy, Acts xvi. 1,) were descended from parents, 
one of whom only was a Jew. They did not, however, 
exclude such persons as were willing to qualify them- 
selves for participating in their sacred rites. Hence they ad- 
mitted Gentile converts to Judaism, who are often termed 
strangers and sojourners, or proselytes. The Libertines, 

Hence is derived the term volume, or thing rolled up, from the Latin 
■trord volvo. to roll. 



226 SACRED PERSONS. 

mentioned in Acts vi. 9, were the descendants of the Li' 
berti, or those Jews, who, having been taken captive at dif- 
ferent times and carried into Italy, had subseqently acquir- 
ed their liberty. The Devout men who feared God, of 
whom we frequently read in the New Testament, were 
Gentiles ; who, though they did not qualify themselves 
for full communion with the Jewish church, had, neverthe- 
less, acquired a better knowledge of the Most High than 
the Pagan Theology furnished, and who, in some respects, 
conformed to the Jewish religion. Of this description was 
Cornelius the Centurion. (Acts x.) 

All these persons, with the exception of the last class, 
were members of the Jewish church, participated in its 
worship, and regulated themselves by the law of Moses, 
(or at least professed to do so,) and by the other inspired 
Hebrew books, whence their sacred rites and religious in- 
struction were derived. No person, however, was allowed 
to partake of the sacred ordinances until he had undergone 
the rite of circumcision : which sacrament was enjoined to 
be observed on the eighth day after the birth of a male 
child, who then received a name. (Gen. xvii. 12. Luke i. 
59, ii. 22.) 

In the initiation of proselytes to the Jewish religion, 
according to the rabbinical writers, the three following 
observances were appointed, namely, circumcision, bap- 
tism, and the offering of sacrifice. 

All these rites, except circumcision were performed by 
the women, as well as the men, who became proselytes ; 
and it was a common notion among the Jews, that every 
person, who had duly performed them all, was to be consi- 
dered as a new-born infant. 



Section II.— On the Ministers of the Temple, and other Ecclesiastical, or 
Sacred Persons. 

On the establishment of the Jewish Commonwealth, 
the tribe of Levi was specially devoted to the service of 
God, instead of the first-born of the tribes of Israel, and) 
was disengaged from all secular labours. The honour of 
the priesthood, however, was reserved to the family of, 
Aaron alone, the rest of the tribe being employed in the 



SACKED PERSONS. 227 

inferior offices of the temple : so that all the priests were 
Levites, but all the Levites were not priests. 

Originally, the Levites, or tribe of Levi, were divided 
into the three families and orders of Gershomites, Koha- 
thites, and Merarites ; (1 Chron. vi. 16, <fcc. ;) but after- 
wards they were divided by David (1 Chron. xxiii.) into 
four classes. 

Their principal office was to wait upon the priests, and 
be assisting to them in the service of the tabernacle, with 
its utensils, (which, during the migrations of the Israelites 
in the wilderness, they alone were permitted to carry and 
to set up when the camp rested,) and afterwards in the 
service of the temple ; so that they were properly the 
ministers and servants of the priests, and obliged to obey 
their orders. (Numb. iii. 9. 1 Chron. xxiii. 28.) It 
was their duty to open, close, and guard the temple, to 
cleanse the sacred vessels, to have the charge of the sa- 
cred loaves, &c. fcc. Some of them also sang psalms, 
while others played on instruments, but all were divided 
into companies, over whom a president was placed. The 
Levites had under them persons called Nethinims, who 
performed various laborious services in the temple. 

In order to enable the Levites to devote themselves to 
that service, forty-eight cities were assigned to them for 
their residence, on the division of the land of Canaan ; 
thirteen of these were appropriated to the priests, to which 
were added the tithes of corn, fruit, and cattle. (Numb, 
xviii. 21 — 24.) The Levites, however, paid to the priests 
a tenth part of all their tithes ; and as they were posses- 
sed of no landed property, the tithes which the priests re- 
ceived from them were considered as the first fruits which 
they were to offer to God. 

Next to the Levites, but superior to them in dignity, 
were the ordinary Priests, who were chosen from the 
family of Aaron exclusively. They served immediately 
at the altar, prepared the victims, and offered the sacri- 
fices. They kept up a perpetual fire on the altar of the 
burnt sacrifices, and also in the lamps of the golden can- 
dlestick in the sanctuary ; in short, performed, first in the 
tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, every thing di- 
rectly connected with the service of God. And, as the 
number and variety of their functions required them to be 



228 SACKED PERSONS. 

well read in their law, in order that they might be able to 
judge of the various legal uncleannesses, &,c. ; this circum- 
stance caused them to be consulted as interpreters of the 
law, (Hos. iv. 6. Mai. ii. 7, <fcc. Lev. xiii. 2. Numb. 
v. 14, 15,) as well as judges of controversies. (Deut. xxi. 
5, xvii. 8 — 13.) In the time of war, their business was 
to carry the ark of the covenant, to sound the holy trum- 
pets, and animate the army to the performance of its du- 
ties. To them also it belonged publicly to bless the peo- 
ple in the name of the Lord. 

The priests were divided by David into twenty-four 
classes, (1 Chron. xxiv. 7 — 18,) which order was retain- 
ed by Solomon, (2 Chron. viii. 14,) and at the revivals 
of the Jewish religion by the kings Hezekiah and Jo 
siah. (2 Chron. xxxi. 2, xxxv. 4, 5.) As, however, only 
four classes returned. from the Babylonish captivity, (Ezra 
ii. 36 — 39. Neh. vii. 39 — 42, xii. 1,) these were again 
divided into twenty-four classes, each of which was dis- 
tinguished by its original appellation. One of these classes 
went up to Jerusalem every week to discharge the sacer- 
dotal office, and succeeded one another on the Sabbath- 
day, till they had all attended in their turn. To each or- 
der was assigned a president, (1 Chron. xxiv. 6 — 31. 2 
Chron. xxxvi. 14,) whom some critics suppose to be the 
same as the chief priests, so often mentioned in the New 
Testament. The prince, or prefect of each class appoint- 
ed an entire family to offer the daily sacrifices ; and at 
the close of the week, they all joined together in sacri- 
ficing. And as each family consisted of a great number of 
priests, they drew lots for the different offices which they 
were to perform. It was by virtue of such lot, that the 
office of burning incense was assigned to Zacharias, the 
father of John the Baptist, when he went into the temple 
of the Lord. (Luke i. 9.) 

For the residence of the priests, thirteen of the Levi- 
tical cities, already mentioned, were assigned, around 
each of which they had three thousand cubits of land : 
their maintenance was derived from tithes, and various 
other offerings enumerated in Levit. vii. 6. 10. 33, 34, 
Deut. xviii. 3, Numb, xviii. 13. 15, 16, Levit. xix. 23, 
24, and Numb. xxxi. 28—41. 

Over all the priests was placed the High Priest, who 



SACRED PERSONS. 229 

enjoyed peculiar dignities and influence. He alone could 
enter the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle, and afterwards 
in the temple : the supreme administration of sacred 
things was confided to him ; he was the final arbiter of all 
controversies ; in later times he presided over the sanhe- 
drin, and held the next rank to the sovereign, or prince. 
His authorit}', therefore, was very great at all times, espe- 
cially when he united the pontifical and regal dignities in 
his own person. In the Old Testament he is sometimes 
called the priest, by way of eminence, (Exod. xxix. 30. 
Neh. vii. 65,) and sometimes the head, or chief of the high 
priests, because the appellation of high priests was given 
to the heads of the sacerdotal families, or courses. 

The pontifical dignity, in its first institution, was held 
for life, provided the high priests were not guilty of crimes 
that merited deposition. During this period the high 
priesthood is supposed to have been elective. 

The first high priest, after the return from the capti- 
vity, was Joshua, the son of Josedek, of the family of Elea- 
zar ; whence the succession went into a private Levitical 
family. The office was then filled by some of the princes 
of the Maccabean family. According to the law, it was, 
or ought to have been held, for life ; but this was very ill 
obeyed under the Roman government, especially during 
the time of our Saviour, and in the latter years of the 
Jewish polity, when election and the right of succession 
were totally disregarded. The dignity, sanctity, and au- 
thority of the high priest were then almost annihilated ; 
and this office was not unfrequently sold to the highest 
bidder, to persons who had neither age, learning, nor rank 
to recommend them ; nay, even to individuals who were 
not of the sacerdotal race ; and sometimes the office was 
made annual. The knowledge of this fact will explain 
the circumstance of several high priests being in existence 
at the same time, or father of their being several pontifi- 
cal men, (Annas and Caiphas, for instance,) who, having 
once held the office for a short time, seem to have retain- 
ed the dignity originally -attached to the name. 

The high priest, who was the chief man in Israel, and 
appeared before God, in behalf of the people, in their sa- 
cred services, and who was appointed for sacrifice, for 
blessing, and for intercession, was a type of Jesus Christ, 
20 



830 ^ . ,JRED PERSONS. 

that great high priest, who offered himself a sacrifice for 
sin, who blesses his people, and who evermore liveth to 
make intercession for them. The term priest is also ap- 
plied to every true believer, who is enabled to offer up 
himself a spiritual sacrifice acceptable to God through 
Christ. (1 Pet. ii. 5. Rev. i. 6.) 

Next to the Levites, priests, and high priests, the Of- 
ficers of the Synagogue may be mentioned here, as 
being, in some degree, sacred persons ; since to them was 
confided the superintendence of those places which were 
set apart for prayer and instruction. Their functions and 
powers have been stated in pp. 223, 224, supra. 

The Nazarites, or Nazarenes, (as the Hebrew word 
Nazir implies,) were persons separated from the use of 
certain things, and sequestered, or consecrated to Jeho- 
vah. They are commonly regarded as sacred persons : 
a notice of their institute will be found infra, in page 243. 

The Rechabttes, are by many writers considered as 
a class of holy persons, who, like the Nazarites, separated 
themselves from the rest of the Jews, in order that they 
might lead a more pious life. But this is evidently a mis- 
take : for they were not Israelites, or Jews, but Kenites, 
or Midianites, who used to live in tents, and traverse the 
country in quest of pasture for their cattle, as the Naba- 
thaean Arabs anciently did, and as the modern Arabians, 
and Crim-Tartars still do. Their manner of living was 
not the result of a religious institute, but a mere civil or- 
dinance grounded upon a national custom. They derived 
their name from Jonadab, the son of Rechab, a man of 
eminent zeal for the pure worship of God against idola- 
try, who assisted king Jehu in destroying the house of 
Ahab and the worshippers of Baal. (2 Kings x. 15, 16. 
23.) The Rechabites flourished, as a community, about 
one hundred and eighty years ; but were dispersed after 
the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. Some 
of their descendants are said to have been lately disco- 
vered in Arabia. 

The Prophets were eminently distinguished among 
the persons accounted holy by the Jews : they were raised 
up by God in an extraordinary manner for the perform- 
ance of the most sacred functions. Originally, they were 
called Seers : they discovered things yet future, declared 



SACKED THIis 



231 



the will of God, and announced the-ir divine messages, 
both to kings and people, with a confidence and freedom 
that could only be produced by the conviction that they 
were indeed authorized messengers of Jehovah. The gift 
of prophecy was not always annexed to the priesthood ; 
there were prophets of all the tribes, and sometimes even 
among the Gentiles. The office of a prophet was not 
confined to the prediction of future events ; it was their 
province to instruct the people, and they interpreted the 
law of God; hence the words prophet and. prophecy are, 
in many passages of the Scriptures, synonymous with in- 
terpreter, or teacher, and interpretation, or teaching. They 
also had seminaries, termed Schools of the Prophets, 
where religious truths, or the divine laws, were particu- 
larly taught. It is unanimously agreed, both by Jews and 
Christians, that Malachi was the last of the prophets under 
the Old Testament dispensation : and it is a remarkable 
fact, that so long as there were prophets among the Jews, 
they were not divided by sects, or heresies, although they 
often fell into idolatry. This circumstance may thus be 
accounted for. As the prophets received their communi- 
cations of the divine will immediately from God himself, 
there was no alternative for the Jews ; either the people 
must obey the prophets, and receive their interpretation of 
the law, or no longer acknowledge that God who inspired 
them. When, however, the law of God came to be ex- 
plained by weak and fallible men, who seldom agreed in 
their opinions, sects and parties were the unavoidable re- 
sult of such conflicting sentiments. 



CHAPTER III. 

SACKED THINGS.— ON THE SACRIFICES AND OTHER OFFERINGS OF THE JEWS. 

The offerings prescribed to the Israelites have been 
divided into four classes, viz.: Bloody Offerings, Un- 
bloody Offerings, Drink Offerings, and Oblations of dif- 
ferent kinds. 

I. Bloody Offerings were sacrifices properly and 
strictly so called ; by which we may understand the inflic- 
tion of death on a living creature, generally by the effu- 



<232 SACKED THINGS. 

sion of its blood, in a way of religious worship, and the 
presenting of this act to God as a supplication for the 
pardon of sin, and as a supposed mean of compensation 
for the insult and injury offered by sin to his majesty and 
government. In all sacrifices of this class, it was re- 
quired that the victims should be clean, that is, such as 
might be eaten. Of the bird tribe, the dove was the most 
common offering ; of quadrupeds, oxen, sheep, and goats 
were the only kinds destined for the altar. Further, the 
victim was to be without blemish, (Levit. xxii. 22,) and 
one which had never borne the yoke. Being found im- 
maculate, it was led to the altar by the person offering 
the sacrifice, who laid his hands upon its head ; by which 
act he acknowledged the sacrifice to be his own, and that 
he offered it as an atonement for his own sins, by which 
he had forfeited his life to the violated law of God. The 
animal being immolated, the blood was caught in a vessel, 
and partly sprinkled round about upon the altar ; by which 
the atonement was made. (Levit. i. 5 — 7.) The remainder 
of the blood was poured out at the foot of the altar ; pre- 
viously to laying the sacrifice thereon, it was salted for 
the fire. (Levit. ii. 13. Mark ix. 46.) At first, sacrifices 
were offered at the door of the tabernacle ; but after the 
erection of the temple, it was not lawful to offer them 
elsewhere. The Jewish sacrifices were of three kinds, 
viz. : 

1. The Burnt Offerings, or Holocausts, were free- 
will offerings, wholly devoted to God, according to the 
primitive patriarchal usage. The man himself was to 
bring them before the Lord, and they were offered in the 
manner just described. The victim to be offered was, ac- 
cording to the person's ability, a bullock without blemish, 
or a male of the sheep, or goats, or a turtle-dove, or 
pigeon. (Levit. i. 3. 10. 14.) If, however, he was too 
poor to bring either of these, he was to offer a mincha, or 
meat-offering, of which an account is given in page 234. 
It was a very expressive type of the sacrifice of Chrkt, 
as nothing less than his complete and full sacrifice could 
make atonement for the sins of the world. 

2. The Peace Offerings (Levit. iii. 1,) were also free- 
will offerings, in token of peace and reconciliation between 
God and man ; they were either eucharistical, that is, 



SACRIFICES, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 233 

offered as thanksgivings for blessings received, or were 
offered for the impetration of mercies. These offer- 
ings consisted either of animals, or of bread, or dough ; 
if the former, part of them was burnt upon the altar, es- 
pecially all the fat, as an offering to the Lord ; and the 
remainder was to be eaten by the priest, and by the party 
offering. To this sacrifice of praise, or thanksgiving, 
Saint Paul alludes in Heb. xiii. 15, 16. In this kind of 
sacrifices the victims might be either male or female, pro- 
vided they were without blemish. The same apostle has 
a fine allusion to them in Eph. ii. 14 — 19. 

3. Sin Offerings were offered for sins committed, 
either through ignorance, or wilfully against knowledge, 
and which were always punished unless they were expi- 
ated. In general they consisted of a sin offering to God, 
and a burnt offering, accompanied with restitution of 
damage. (Levit. v. 2 — 19, vi. 1 — 7.) 

4. The Trespass Offerings were made, where the 
party offering had just reason to doubt whether he had 
violated the law of God or not. (Levit. v. 17, 18.) They 
do not appear to have differed materially from sin offer- 
ings. In both these kinds of sacrifices, the person who 
offered them placed his hands on the victim's head, if a 
sin offering, and confessed his sin over it, and his trespass 
over the trespass offering; the animal was then consider- 
ed as vicariously bearing the sins of the person who 
brought it. 

All these sacrifices were occasional, and had reference 
to individuals ; but there were others which were national 
and regular, daily, weekly, monthly, and annual. 

The perpetual, or Daily Sacrifice, was a burnt offering, 
consisting of two lambs, which were offered every day, 
morning and evening, at the third and ninth hours. (Exod. 
xxix. 38—40. Levit. vi. 9—18. Numb, xxviii. 1—8.) 
They were burnt as holocausts, but by a small fire, that 
they might continue burning the longer. With each of 
these victims was offered a bread offering, and a drink 
offering of strong wine. The morning sacrifice, accord- 
ing to the Jews, made atonement for the sins committed 
in the night, and the evening sacrifice expiated those com- 
mitted during the day. 

The Weekly Sacrifice, on every Sabbath-day, was equal 
20* 



234 SACRED THINGS, 

to the daily sacrifice, and was offered in addition to it. 
(Numb, xxviii. 9, 10.) 

The Monthly Sacrifice, on every new moon, or at the 
beginning of each month, consisted of two young bul- 
locks, one ram, and seven lambs of a year old, together 
with a kid for a sin offering, and a suitable bread and 
drink-offering. (Numb, xxviii. 11 — 14.) 

The Yearly Sacrifices were thus offered on the great 
annual festivals, which are noticed in the following chap- 
ter, viz. : 1. The paschal lamb at the passover, which 
was celebrated at the commencement of the Jewish sacred 
year ; 2. On the day of Pentecost, or day of first-fruits : 

3. On the New Moon, or first day of the seventh month, 
which was the commencement of their civil year ; and, 

4. on the day of expiation. 

II. The Unbloody Sacrifices, or Meat-offerings, were 
taken solely from the vegetable kingdom : they could not, 
regularly, be presented as sin-offerings, unless the person 
who had sinned was so poor that he could not afford to 
bring two young pigeons, or two turtle-doves. They were 
to be free from leaven, or honey, but to all of them it was 
necessary to add pure salt, that is, saltpetre. 

III. Drink-Offerings were an accompaniment to both 
bloody and unbloody sacrifices: they were never used 
separately ; and consisted of wine, which appears to have 
been partly poured upon the brow of the victim, in order 
to consecrate it, and partly allotted to the priests, who 
drank it, with their portions of both these kirkls of of- 
ferings. 

IV. Besides the preceding sacrifices, various other ob- 
lations are mentioned in the sacred writings, which have 
been divided into ordinary, or common, voluntary, or free 
oblations, and such as were prescribed. 

1. The Ordinary Oblations consisted, 1. Of the She?v- 
bread, which has been already noticed in p. 221 ; 
the loaves were placed hot, every Sabbath-day, by the 
priests, upon the golden table of the sanctuary before the 
Lord, when they removed the stale loaves which had 
been exposed the whole of the preceding week ; and, 2. 
Of Incense, which was composed of several fragrant 
spices, prepared according to the commands given in 
Exod. xxx. 34 — 36. It was offered twice, daily, by the 



SACRIFICES, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 235 

officiating priest, upon a golden altar, whereon no bloody- 
sacrifice was to come, except on the day of atonement, 
when it was offered by the high priest. During this of- 
fering, the people prayed silently without ; (Luke i. 10 ;) 
and to this solemn silence St. John alludes in Rev. viii. 1. 

2. The Voluntary, or Free Oblations were, the fruits 
either of promises or of vows ; but the former were not 
considered so strictly obligatory as the latter, of which 
there were two kinds : 1. The vow of consecration, when 
any thing was devoted to God, either for sacrifice or for 
the service of the temple, as wine, wood, salt, &c. To 
this class of vows belonged the Corban, reprobated by Je- 
sus Christ, which the Pharisees carried so far as to exone- 
rate children from assisting their indigent parents (Mark 
vii. 9 — 11. 13;) and, 2. The vow of engagement, when 
persons engaged to do something that was not in itself 
unlawful, as not to eat of some particular meat, not to 
wear some particular habits, not to drink win»e, nor to cut 
their hair, &c. 

3. The Prescribed Oblations were either First Fruits, 
or Tithes. 

(1.) All the First Fruits, both of fruit and animals, 
were consecrated to God ; (Exod. xxii. 29. Numb, xviii. 
12, 13. Deut. xxvi. 2. Neh. x. 35, 36 ;) and the first 
fruits of sheep's wool were offered for the use of the Le- 
vites. (Deut. xviii. 4.) These first fruits were offered 
from the feast of Pentecost, until that of Dedication, be- 
cause after that time the fruits were neither so beautiful, 
nor so good as before. Further, the Jews were prohibit- 
ed from gathering in the harvest until they had offered 
to God the omer, that is, the new sheaf, which was 
presented the day after the great day of unleavened bread ; 
neither were they allowed to bake any bread made of new 
corn, until they had offered the new loaves upon the altar 
on the day of pentecost ; without which all the corn was 
regarded as unclean and unholy. To this St. Paul alludes 
in Rom. xi. 16. 

2. Besides the first fruits, the Jews also paid the tenths, 
or tithes, of all they possessed ; (Numb, xviii. 21 ;) they 
were, in general, collected from all the fruits of the earth, 
but chiefly of corn, wine, and oil, and were rendered every 
year, except the sabbatical vear. 



236 SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS 

CHAPTER IV. 

SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS OBSERVED BY THE JEWS. 

In order to perpetuate the memory of the numerous 
wonders God had wrought in favour of his people, Moses 
by the divine command instituted various festivals, which 
they were obliged to observe : these sacred seasons were 
either weekly, monthly, or annual, or recurred after a 
certain number of years. 

I. Every seventh day was appropriated to sacred re- 
pose, and called the Sabbath ; although this name is in 
some passages given to other festivals, as in Levit. xxv. 
4 ; and sometimes it denotes a week, as in Matt, xxviii. 1, 
Luke xxiv. 1, and Acts xx. 7. It was originally instituted 
to preserve the memory of the creation of the world ; 
( Gen. ii. 3 ;) and when God gave the Israelites rest in the 
land of Canaan, he commanded the Sabbath to be statedly 
kept. (Exod. xx. 10, 11, xvi. 23.) Accordingly, it was 
observed with great solemnity ; the Jews religiously ab- 
staining from all servile work. (Exod xx. 10, xxiii. 12, 
&c. &c.) It was therefore unlawful to gather manna on 
that day, (Exod. xvi. 22 — 30,) to light a fire for culinary 
purposes, and also to sow or reap. (Exod. xxxv. 3. Numb, 
xv. 32 — 36. Exod. xxxiv. 21.) The services of the temple, 
however, might be performed without profaning the sabbath, 
such as preparing the sacrifices ; (Lev. vi. 8 — 13. Numb, 
xxviii. 3 — 10. Matt. xii. 5 ;) and it was also lawful to 
perform circumcision on that day. (John vii. 23.) The sab- 
bath commenced at sun-set, and closed at the same time 
on the following day. (Matt. vii. 16. Mark i. 32.) What- 
ever was necessary was prepared on the latter part of the 
preceding day, that is, of our Friday; whence the day 
preceding the Sabbath is termed the preparation in Matt, 
xxvii. 62, Mark xv. 42, Luke xxii. 54, and John xix. 
14.31.42. 

We know not with certainty from the Mosaic writings 
what constituted the most ancient worship of the Israelites 
on the Sabbath-day. It is, however, evident from the 
New Testament, that the celebration of this day chiefly 
consisted in the religious exercises which were then per- 



OBSERVED BY THE JEWS. 237 

formed : though there is no injunction recorded, except 
that a burnt-offering of two lambs should on that day be 
added to the morning and evening sacrifices, (Numb, 
xxviii. 9,) and that the shewbread should be changed. 
(Levit. xxiv. 8,) In the synagogues, as we have already 
see-n, the sacred writings were read and expounded; to 
which was sometimes added, a discourse, or sermon by 
some doctor, or eminent teacher. (Luke rv. 16. Acts 
xiii. 15.) 

Prayer also appears to have formed a part of their sacred 
worship in the synagogue, and especially in the temple : 
(1 Sam. i. 9, 10. 1 Kings viii. 29, 30. 33. Psal. xxviii. 
2. Luke xviii. 10 :) the stated hours were at the time of 
offering the morning and evening sacrifice, or at the third 
and ninth hours ; (Actsii. 15, and lii. 1 ;) although it was the 
custom of the more devout Jews, as David (Psal. lv. 17,) 
and Daniel, (vi. 10.) to pray three times a day. Peter 
went up to the house top to pray. (Acts x. 9.) 

II. The Jewish months being lunar, were originally cal- 
culated from the first appearance of the moon, on which 
the Feast of the new moon, or beginning of months, (as 
the Hebrews termed it,) was celebrated. (Exod. xii. 2. 
Numb. x. 10, xxviii. 11. Isa. i. 13, 14.) It seems to 
have been in use long before the time of Moses, who by 
the divine command prescribed what ceremonies were 
then to be observed. It was proclaimed with the sound 
of trumpets, (Numb. x. 10. Psal. Ixxxi. 3,) and several 
additional sacrifices were offered. (Numb, xxviii. 11 — 15.) 

Besides the Sabbath, Moses instituted other festivals : 
three of these, viz.: the passover, the feast of pentecost, 
and the feast of tabernacles, which are usually denomina- 
ted the Great Festivals, were distinguished from the Sab- 
bath, and indeed from all other holy days, by the circum- 
stance of each of them lasting seven (one for eight) suc- 
cessive days ; during which, the Jews were bound to re- 
joice before the Lord for all their deliverances and mer- 
cies. (Deut. xvi. 11 — 15.) All the males of the twelve 
tribes were bound to be present at these grand festivals ; 
(Exod. xxxiv. 23. Deut. xvi. 16 ;) and for their encour- 
agement to attend, they were assured that " no man 
should desire their land" during their absence : (Exod. 
xxxiv. 24 :) in other words, that they should be secure 



23S SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS 

from hostile invasion during their attendance on religious 
worship : — a manifest proof this of the divine origin of 
their religion, as woll as of the power and particular provi- 
dence of God, in working thrice every year an especial 
miracle for the protection of his people. 

III. The first and most eminent of these festivals was 
the Passover, instituted the night before the Israelites' 
departure from Egypt, for a perpetual memorial of their 
signal deliverance, and of the favour which God showed 
them in passing over, and sparing their first-born, when 
he slew the first-born of the Egyptians. (Exod. xii. J 2 — 
14. 29, 30—51.) This festival was also called the feast, 
or the days of unleavened bread ; (Exod. xxiii. 15. Mark 
xiv. 1. Acts xii. 3 ;) because it was unlawful to eat any 
other bread during the seven days the feast lasted. The 
name was also, by a metonymy, given to the lamb that 
was killed on the first day of this feast, (Ezra vi. 20. 
Matt. xxvi. 17,) whence the expressions, to eat the pass- 
over (Mark xiv. 12. 14,) and to sacrifice the passover. 
(1 Cor. v. 7.) Hence also, St. Paul calls Jesus Christ 
our passover, (ibid.) that is our true paschal lamb. But 
the appellation, passover, belongs more particularly to the 
second day of the feast, viz. : the fifteenth day of the 
month Nisan. It was ordained to be celebrated on the 
anniversary of the deliverance of the Israelites. This 
was an indispensable rite, to be observed by every Israel- 
ite, except in particular cases enumerated in Numb. ix. 1 
— 13, on pain of death ; and no uncircumcised person 
was allowed to partake of the passover. In the later 
times of the Jewish Polity, the custom was introduced, 
of liberating some criminals, in order to render this festi- 
val the more interesting : and this custom had become so 
strong that Pilate could not deviate from it, and therefore 
reluctantly liberated Barabbas. (Matt, xxvii. 15. Luke 
xxiii. 17. John xviii. 39.) The particular rites with 
which this festival was to be celebrated, are specified in 
Exod. xii. The later Jews made some addition to the 
rites prescribed by Moses respecting the paschal sacrifice. 
They drank with it four cups of wine, of which the third 
was called the cup of blessing, (alluded to in 1 Cor. x. 16, 
compared with Matt. xxvi. 27.) After which they sang 
the hymn called the "Great Hallel," viz.: Psalm cxiii. — 



OBSERVED BY THE JEWS. 



^39 



cxviii. Sometimes, when, after the fourth cup, the guests 
felt disposed to repeat Psalms cxx. — cxxxvii. a fifth cup 
was also drunk. These ceremonies appear to have been 
in part imitated by Jesus Christ, in the institution of the 
Eucharist. The paschal victim typified Jesus Christ, his 
sufferings, and death : not a bone of it was to be broken: 
a circumstance, in which there was a remarkable corres- 
pondence between the type and the antitype. (Exod. xii. 
46. John xix. 33—36.) 

IV. The Second Great Festival, was the Feast of 
Pentecost, which was celebrated on the fiftieth day 
after the first day of unleavened bread. It was a festi- 
val of thanksgiving for the harvest, which commenced 
immediately after the passover. On this account two 
loaves made of the new meal were offered before the 
Lord as the first fruits: whence it is called the day of 
the first fruits. The form of thanksgiving is given in 
Deut. xxvi. 5 — 10. 

V. The Feast of Tabernacles, was instituted to com- 
memorate the dwelling of the Israelites in tents, while 
they wandered in the desert. (Lev. xxiii. 34 — 43.) Hence 
it is called by St. John, the feast of tents, (cK^vonnyia, skeno- 
pegia, John vii. 2.) It is likewise termed the feast of 
ingatherings, (Exod. xxiii. 16, xxxiv. 22.) Further, the 
design of this feast was, to return thanks to God, for the 
fruits of the vine, as well as of other trees, which were 
gathered about this time, and also to implore his blessing 
upon those of the ensuing year. During the whole of 
the solemnity they were obliged to dwell in tents, which 
anciently were pitched on the flat terrace-like roofs of 
their houses. (Neh. viii. 16.) Besides the ordinary 
daily sacrifices, there were several extraordinary ones 
offered on this occasion, which are detailed in Numb. 
xxix. One of the most remarkable ceremonies perform- 
ed at this feast, was the libation, or pouring out of water, 
drawn from the fountain, or pool of Siloam, upon the al- 
tar. As, according to the Jews themselves, this water 
was an emblem of the Holy Spirit, Jesus Christ mani- 
festly alluded to it, when he " cried, saying, If any man 
thirst, let him come unto me and drink." (John vii. 
37-39.) 

VI. To the three grand annual festivals above descri- 



240 SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS 

bed, Moses added two others, which were celebrated with 
great solemnity, though the presence of every male Israel- 
ite was not absolutely required. 

1. The first of these was the Feast of Trumpets: 
it was held on the first and second days of the month 
Tisri, which was the commencement of the civil year of 
the Hebrews. This feast derives its name from the blow- 
ing of trumpets in the temple with more than usual solem- 
nity. (Numb. xxix. 1. Levit. xxiii. 24.) On this fes- 
tival, they abstained from all labour, (Levit. xxiii. 25.) 
and offered particular sacrifices to God, which are de- 
scribed in Numb. xxix. 1 — 6. 

2. The other feast alluded to, was the Fast, or Feast 
of Expiation, or Day of Atonement; which day the 
Jews observed as a most strict fast, abstaining from all 
servile work, taking no food, and afflicting their souls. 
(Levit. xxiii. 27 — 30. Of all the sacrifices ordained by 
the Mosaic law, the sacrifice of the atonement was the 
most solemn and important : it was offered on the tenth 
day of the month Tisri, by the high priest alone, for the 
sins of the whole nation. On this day only, in the course 
of the year, was the high priest permitted to enter the 
sanctuary, and not even then without due preparation, 
under pain of death ; all others being excluded from the 
tabernacle during the whole ceremony, which prefigured 
the grand atonement to be made for the sins of the whole 
world by Jesus Christ. The particulars incident to this 
solemnity are detailed in Levit. xvi. 

VII. Besides these various annual festivals, which were 
instituted by divine command, the Jews in later times in- 
troduced several other feast and fast days, of which the 
following were the principal : — 

1. The Feast of Purim, or of Lots, as the word signi- 
fies, is celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of 
the month Adar, (or of Ve-Adar, if it be an intercalary 
year,) in commemoration of the providential deliverance 
of the Jews from the cruel machinations of Hainan, who 
had procured an edict from Artaxerxes to extirpate them. 
(Esth. iii. — ix.) On this occasion the entire book of 
Esther is read in the synagogues of the modern Jews, 
not out of a printed copy, but from a roll, which general- 
ly contains this book alone. All Jews, of both sexes, and 



OBSERVED BY THE JEW W . 241 

of every age, who are able to attend, are required to come 
to this feast, and to join in the reading, for the better pre- 
servation of the memory of this important fact. 

2. The Feast of Dedication, mentioned in Jolan x. 
22, was instituted by Judas Maccabeus, to commemorate 
the purification of the second temple, after it had been 
profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes. (1 Mace. iv. 52 — 59.) 
It commenced on the 25th day of the month Cisleu, and 
was solemnized throughout the country with great re- 
joicings. 

VIII. The preceding are the chief annual festivals no- 
ticed in the sacred writings, that are particularly deserving 
of attention : the Jews have various others, of more modern 
institution, which are here designedly omitted. We, there- 
fore, proceed to notice those extraordinary festivals, which 
were only celebrated after the recurrence of a certain 
number of years. 

1. The first of these was the sabbatical year; for, as 
the seventh day of the week was consecrated as a day of 
rest to man and beast, so this gave rest to the land; 
which, during its continuance, was to lie fallow, and the 
" sabbath of the land," or its spontaneous produce, was 
dedicated to charitable uses, to be enjoyed by the servants 
of the family, by the way-faring stranger, and by the cat- 
tle. (Levit. xxv. 1 — 7. Exod. xxiii. 11.) This was also 
the year of release from personal slavery, (Exod. xxi. 2,) 
as well as of the remission of debts. (Deut. xv. 1, 2.) 

2. The Jubilee was a more solemn sabbatical year, 
held every seventh sabbatical year, that is, at the end of 
every forty-nine years, or the fiftieth current year. (Levit. 
xxv. 8 — 10.) It commenced on the evening of the day 
of atonement, and was proclaimed by the sound of trum- 
pet throughout the whole land. All debts were to be can- 
celled; all slaves, or captives, were to be released. Even 
those who had voluntarily relinquished their freedom at 
the end of their six years' service, and whose ears had 
been bored in token of their perpetual servitude, were to 
be liberated at the jubilee : for then they were to proclaim 
liberty throughout all the land, unto all the inhabitants 
thereof. (Levit. xxv. 10.) Further, in this year all es- 
tates that had been sold reverted to their original proprie- 
tors, or to the families to which they had originally be- 



242 IN THE CORRUPTIONS 

longed ; thus provision was made, that no family should 
be totally ruined, and doomed to perpetual poverty ; for 
the family estate could not be alienated for a longer pe- 
riod than fifty years. The value and purchase-money 
of estates, therefore, diminished in proportion to the near 
approach of the jubilee. (Levit. xxv. 15.) From this 
privilege, however, houses in walled towns were except- 
ed ; these were to be redeemed within a year, otherwise 
they belonged to the purchaser, notwithstanding the jubi- 
lee, (ver. 30.) During this year, as well as in the sabbati- 
cal year, the ground also had its rest, and was not culti- 
vated. 



CHAPTER V. 

SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. OF OATHS. — NATURE AND DIFFERENT SORTS 

OF VOWS. 

I. Of Oaths. — The person who confirmed his asser- 
tion by a voluntary oath, pronounced the same with his 
right hand elevated : but when an oath was exacted, 
whether judically, or otherwise, the person to whom it 
was put, answered by saying, Amen, Amen, (So let it be,) 
or, Thou hast said it. (Numb. v. 19 — 22. Deut. xxvii. 15 
—26. Matt. xxvi. 64.) In the time of Christ, the Jews 
were in the habit of swearing by the altar, by Jerusalem, 
by themselves, &c. &c. ; and because the sacred name of 
God was not mentioned in such oaths, they considered 
them as imposing little, if any deception. Such fraudu 
lent conduct is severely censured by Jesus Christ in Matt, 
v. 33-— 37, and xxiii. 16—22. 

II. Nature and different kinds of Vows. 

A Vow is a religious engagement, or promise, volunta- 
rily undertaken by a person towards Almighty God : to 
render it valid, Moses requires that it be actually uttered 
with the mouth, and not merely in the heart; (Numb 
xxx. 3. 7. 9. 13. Deut. xxiii. 24;) and in Deut. xxiii. 18, 
he prohibits the offering of what is acquired by impure 
means. Two sorts of Vows are mentioned in the Old 
Testament ; viz. : 

I. The Cherem, or Irremissible Vow : it was the most 
solemn of all, and was accompanied with a form of exe- 



SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 243 

cration. This vow is no where enjoined by Moses. The 
species of cherem with which we are best acquainted, was 
the previous devotement to God of hostile cities, against 
which they intended to proceed with extreme severity ; 
and that with a view the more to inflame the minds 
of the people to war. In such cases, not only were all 
the inhabitants put to death, but also, according as the 
terms of the vow declared, no booty was made by any Is- 
raelite ; the beasts were slain ; what would not burn, as 
gold, silver, and other metals, was added to the treasure 
of the sanctuary; and every thing else, with the whole 
city, burnt, and an imprecation pronounced upon any at- 
tempt that should ever be made to rebuild it. Of this the 
history of Jericho (3osh. vi. 17 — 19. 21 — 24, and vii. 1. 
12 — 26,) furnishes the most remarkable example. 

2. The common vows were divided into two sorts, viz. : 
1. Vows of dedication; and, 2. Vows of self-interdiction, 
or abstinence. 

i. The Neder, or vow, in the stricter sense of the word, 
was when a person engaged to do any thing, as, for in- 
stance, to bring an offering to God ; or otherwise to dedi- 
cate any thing unto him. Things vowed in this way, 
were, 1. Unclean beasts. These might be estimated by 
the priest, and redeemed by the vower, by the addition of 
one-fifth to the value. (Lev. xxvii. 11 — 13.) 2. Clean 
beasts used for offerings. Here there was no right of re- 
demption ; nor could the beasts be exchanged for others, 
under the penalty of both being forfeited, and belonging 
to the Lord. (Lev. xxvii. 9, 10.) 3. Lands and houses. 
These had the privilege of valuation and redemption. 
(Lev. xxvii. 14 — 24.) To these we have to add, 4. The 
person of the vower himself with the like privilege. (Lev. 
xxvii. 1 — 8.) 

ii. Vows of Self-interdiction, or self-denial, were, 
when a person engaged to abstain from wine, food, or any 
other thing. To this class of vows may be referred the 
Nazareate, or Nazariteship, the statutes respecting which 
are related in Numb. vi. The Nazarites were required 
to abstain from wine, fermented liquors, and every thing 
made of grapes, to let their hair grow, and not to defile 
themselves by touching the dead ; and if any person had 
accidentally expired in their presence, the Nazarites of 



244 SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 

the second class were obliged to recommence their Naza 
riteship. 

Similar to the Nazareate was the vow frequently made 
by devout Jews, on their recovery from sickness, or de- 
liverance from danger, or distress : who, for thirty days 
before they offered sacrifices, abstained from wine, and 
shaved the hair of their head. This usage illustrates the 
conduct of St. Paul, as related in Acts xvii. 18. 

III. The Purifications of the Jews were various, 
and the objects of them were either persons, or things 
dedicated to divine worship. The Jews had two sorts of 
washing ; one, of the whole body by immersion, which 
was used by the priests at their consecration, and by the 
proselytes at their initiation ; — the other, of the hands, or 
feet, called dipping, or pouring of water, and which was 
of daily use, not only for the hands, and feet, but also for 
the cups and other vessels used at their meals. (Matt. xv. 
2. Mark vii. 3, 4. John ii. 6.) To these two modes of 
purification, Jesus Christ seems to allude in John xiii. 10 

IV. In the Mosaic law, those persons are termed un- 
clean, whom others were obliged to avoid touching, or 
even meeting, unless they chose to be themselves defiled, 
that is, cut off from all intercourse with their brethren ; 
and who, besides, were bound to abstain from frequent- 
ing the place where divine service and the offering-feasts 
were held, under penalties still more severe. 

The duration and degrees of impurity were different. 
In some instances, by the use of certain ceremonies, an 
unclean person became purified at sunset ; in others, this 
did not take place, until eight days after the physical cause 
of defilement ceased. Lepers were obliged to live in a 
detached situation, separate from other people, and to keep 
themselves actually at a distance from them. They were 
distinguished by a peculiar dress ; and if any person ap- 
proached, they were bound to give him warning, by cry- 
ing out, Unclean! unclean! Other polluted persons, again, 
could not directly touch those that were clean, without 
defiling them in like manner, and were obliged to remain 
without the camp, that they might not be in their way. 
(Numb. v. 1 — 4.) Eleven different species of impurity 
are enumerated in the Levitical law, to which the later 
Jews added many otkers. But the severest of all was the 



ON THE CORRUPTIONS, ETC. 245 

Leprosy, an infectious disease of slow, and imperceptible 
progress, beginning very insidiously and gently, until at 
length it became incurable, and most offensively loath- 
some. The Mosaic statutes respecting this malady, are 
recorded in Levit. xiii. xiv. Numb. v. 1 — 4, and Deut. 
xxiv. 8, 9. The leprosy has ever been considered as a 
lively emblem of that moral taint, or corruption of the na- 
ture of every man, that naturally is engendered of the off- 
spring of Adam ;* as the sacrifices, which were to be 
offered by the healed leper, prefigured that spotless Lamb 
of God that taketh away the sin of the world. 



CHAPTER VI. 

ON THE CORRUPTIONS OF RELIGION BY THE JEWS. 

I. On the Idolatry of the Jews. — II. Jewish Sects, mentioned in the New 
Testament. — III. Extreme corruption of the Jewish People at the time 
f Christ's Birth. 

I. Idolatry op the Jews. 

Idolatry is the superstitious worship of idols, or false 
gods. From Gen. vi. 5, compared with Rom. i. 23, there 
is every reason to believe that it was practised before the 
flood ; and this conjecture is confirmed by the apostle 
Jude, (ver. 4,) who, describing the character of certain 
men in his days, that denied the only Lord God, adds, in 
the eleventh verse of his epistle, Wo unto them, for they 
are gone into the way of Cain ; whence it may be infer- 
red that Cain and his descendants were the first who 
threw off the sense of a God, and worshipped the crea- 
ture instead of the Creator. The heavenly bodies were 
the first objects of idolatrous worship, and Mesopotamia 
and Chaldaea were the countries where it chiefly prevail- 
ed after the deluge, whence it spread into Canaan, Egypt, 
and other countries. Although Moses, by the command 
and instruction of God, had given to the Israelites such a 
religion as no other nation possessed, and notwithstanding 
all his laws were directed to preserve them from idolatry, 
yet, so wayward were the Israelites, that, almost immedi- 

* Article IX. of the Confession of the Anglican Church. 

21 



246 ON THE corruptions 

ately after their departure from Egypt, we find them wor- 
shipping idols. (Exod. xxxii. 1. Psal. cvi. 19, 20. Acts vii. 
41 — 43.) Soon after their entrance into the land of Ca- 
naan, they adopted various deities that were worshipped 
by the Canaanites and other neighbouring nations ; (Judg. 
ii. 13, viii. 33 ;) for which base ingratitude, they were 
severely punished. And, after the division of the two 
kingdoms, it is well known, that, with the exception of a 
few short intervals, both the sovereigns and people of Is- 
rael, were wholly given to idolatry : nor were the people 
of Judah, exempt from the worship of strange gods, as the 
frequent reproofs of the prophets abundantly testify. At 
length, however, become wiser by the severe discipline 
they had received, the tribes that returned into their native 
country from the Babylonian captivity, wholly renounced 
idolatry ; and thenceforth, uniformly evinced the most 
deeply rooted aversion from all strange deities, and foreign 
modes of worship. This great reformation, was accom- 
plished by Ezra and Nehemiah, and the eminent men who 
accompauied, or succeeded them ; but, in the progress of 
time, though the exterior of piety was maintained, the 
" power of godliness" was lost ; and we learn from the 
New Testament, that, during our Saviour's ministry, the 
Jews were divided into various religious parties, which 
widely differed in opinion, and pursued each other with 
the fiercest animosity, and with implacable hatred. 

II. Of these Sects, and their respective tenets, to 
which there are frequent allusions in the New Testament, 
we are now to give a concise account. 

. The sect of the Sadducees derived its name from 
Sadok, a pupil of Antigonus Sochaeus, president of the 
sanhedrin, or great council ; who flourished about two 
hundred aud sixty years before the Christian sera. They 
disregarded all the traditions and unwritten laws, which 
the Pharisees prized so highly, and professed to consider 
the Scriptures, as the only source and rule of the Jewish 
religion. They denied the existence of angels and spirits, 
considered the soul as dying with the body, and conse- 
quently admitted of no future state of rewards and pun- 
ishments. The tenets of this sect, which was small in 
point of numbers, were not so acceptable to the people as 
those of the Pharisees. 



OF RELIGION BY THE JEWS. 247 

2. The Pharisees are supposed to have appeared not 
long after the Sadducees. They were the most nume- 
rous, distinguished, and popular sect among the Jews. 
They derived their name from the Hebrew word Pha- 
rash, which signifies separated, or set apart, because they 
separated themselves from the rest of the Jews, to supe- 
rior strictness in religious observances. They boasted 
that, from their accurate knowledge of religion, they were 
the favourites of heaven; and thus, trusting in themselves 
that they were righteous, despised others. (Luke xi. 52, 
xviii. 9. 11.) 

Though they professed to esteem the written books of 
the Old Testament as the sources of the Jewish religion, 
yet they also attributed great and equal authority to tra 
ditional precepts, relating principally to external rites. 
They held the soul to be immortal, and the doctrine of 
the resurrection of the body ; but they believed that all 
things were controlled by fate. They rigidly interpreted 
the Mosaic Law, but not unfrequently violated its spirit 
by their traditional and philosophical expositions. They 
were zealous in making proselytes ; and their professed 
sanctity gave them great influence among the common 
people, especially with the female part of the community 
Their general hypocrisy and profligacy, are severely ar- 
raigned by Jesus Christ. 

3. The Essenes, who were the third principal sect 
among the Jews, differed in many respects from the Pha- 
risees and Sadducees, both in doctrines and in practice. 
They were divided into two classes : 1. The practical 
who lived in society, (and some of whom were married,) 
though, it appears, with much circumspection. These 
dwelt in cities and their neighbourhoods, and applied 
themselves to husbandry, and other innocent occupations 
2. The contemplative Essenes, who were also called 
Therapeutae, or Physicians, from their application prin- 
cipally to the cure of the diseases of the soul, devoted 
themselves wholly to meditation, and avoided living in 
great towns, as unfavourable to a contemplative life. But 
both classes were exceedingly abstemious, exemplary in 
their moral deportment, averse from profane swearing, 
and most rigid in their observance of the Sabbath. They 
held, among other tenets, the immortality of the soul, 



248 ON THE CORRUPTIONS 

(though they denied the resurrection of the body,) the 
existence of angels, and a state of future rewards and 
punishments. They believed every thing to be ordered 
by an eternal fatality, or chain of causes. Though they 
are not mentioned in the New Testament, they are sup- 
posed to be referred to in Col. ii. 18. 21. 23 : and the 
contemplative Essenes, are supposed to have been in- 
tended by those who in Matt. xix. 12, are said to have 
made themselves eunuchs, for the kingdom of God's sake. 

4. The Scribes and Lawyers, who are frequently 
mentioned in the Gospels, are usually classed among 
Jewish sects. The Scribes had the charge of transcribing 
the sacred books, of publicly interpreting the more diffi- 
cult passages, and of deciding in cases which grew out of 
the ceremonial law. They possessed great influence, as 
well as the lawyers, or private teachers of the law. 

5. The Samaritans, are generally considered as a 
Jewish sect : their origin and tenets, have already been 
noticed in p. 68. 

6. The Herodians, were a political faction, the parti- 
sans of Herod, misnamed the Great, from whom they de- 
rived their name, and with whom they co-operated in all 
his political and time-serving schemes, to conciliate the 
favour of the Romans. 

7. The Galileans, were the followers of Judas the 
Gaulonite, or Galileean, whose tenets they embraced, and 
acted upon. They held, that tribute was due to God 
alone, and consequently, ought not to be paid to the Ro- 
mans ; and that religious liberty, and the authority of the 
divine laws, were to be defended by force of arms. In 
other respects, their doctrines appear to have been the 
same as those of the Pharisees. 

The Zealots, so often mentioned in Jewish history, 
appear to have been the followers of this Judas : and it 
has been supposed, that the just men, whom the Phari- 
sees and Herodians sent to entangle Jesus in his conver- 
sation, were members of this sect. (Matt. xxii. 15, 16. 
Mark xii. 13, 14. Luke xx. 20.) 

8. The Sicarii, noticed in Acts xxi. 38, were assas- 
sins, who derived their name from their using poniards, 
bent like the Roman sicce, which they concealed under 



OF RELIGION Bl r THE JEWS. 249 

their garments, and privately stabbed the objects of their 
malice. 

III. The Corruption op the Jewish People, both 
in religion and morals, in the time of Christ, sufficiently 
appears from the censures of Jesus Christ, which are to 
be found in the four Gospels. The evidence of the sa- 
cred writers is confirmed by the testimony of profane 
writers, especially Josephus, the Jewish Historian, from 
whom we learn, that the corruption and profligacy of the 
chief priests, and other distinguished leaders, pervaded 
the priests ; and that from them, the moral and religious 
contamination had spread to the lowest classes of the peo- 
ple, who were immersed in ignorance and vice, and che- 
rished the most supercilious contempt, and bitter hatred 
towards the Gentiles. So great was their profligacy in 
the last period of their commonwealth, that Josephus has 
recorded it as his opinion, that if the Romans had delay- 
ed any longer to have come against them, the city (Je- 
rusalem) would either have been swallowed up by an 
earthquake, overwhelmed by a deluge, or destroyed by 
fire from heaven, as Sodom was : for that generation was 
far more enormously wicked, than those who suffered 
these calamities.* 

* De Bell. Jud. lib. v. c. 13. S & 



250 



BOOK IV — DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS AND OTHER 
NATIONS, INCIDENTALLY MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 



CHAPTER I. 



ON THE DWELLINGS OF THE JEWS. 



The earliest dwellings of mankind, after they began 
to multiply, are supposed to have been caves : thus Lot 
and his daughters abode in a cave after the destruction 
of Sodom : and both ancient and modern travellers attest, 
that, in some parts of the East, caves have been employ- 
ed for the purposes of habitation. In succeeding ages, 
they abode in tents ; (Gen. xviii. 4 ;) and, in progress of 
time, houses were erected ; those of the rich were formed 
of stone, or bricks, but the dwellings of the poor, were 
formed of wood, or more frequently of mud, (as they are 
to this day, in various parts of the East,) a material 
which is but ill calculated to resist the effects of the im- 
petuous torrents, that descended from the mountains of 
Palestine. Our Lord alludes to this circumstance at the 
close of his sermon on the mount. (Matt. vii. 26, 27.) In 
the East Indies also, nothing is more common than for 
thieves to dig, or break through these mud walls, while 
the unsuspecting inhabitants are overcome by sleep, and 
to plunder them. To similar depredations, Jesus Christ 
appears to allude, when he exhorts his disciples, not to 
lay up their treasure where thieves break through and 
steal. (Matt. vi. 19, 20.) In the holes and chinks of 
these walls, serpents sometimes concealed themselves. 
(Amos v. 19.) 

The following diagram will convey some idea of the 
form of an oriental house. 



ON THE DWELLINGS OF THE JEWS 



251 




As the style of Architecture and manners of the East 
have remained unaltered, the description of a modern 
oriental house will enable us to form a tolerably correct 
notion of the structure of the Jewish houses. In the East, 
the streets are usually narrow, the better to shade them 
from the sun, and sometimes they have a range of shops 
on each side. If, then, we enter a house from the street, 
A A j we shall pass through the outer porch, B, into a 
square court open to the weather. This court, strewed 
with mats or carpets, is the usual place for receiving large 
companies at nuptials, circumcisions, and on other occa- 
sions. The banquet of Ahasuerus was given in a court 
of the royal palace; (Esth. i. 5;) and in a court the multi 
tude was assembled to hear the discourse of Jesus Christ, 
mentioned in Luke v. 19, where it is termed to pevov, (to 
meson,) the midst. The court is, for the most part, sur 
rounded with a cloister, over which is a gallery, C C C 
with a balustrade, or piece of lattice, or carved work 
going round it, to prevent accidents : and from this clois- 
ter, we are led into apartments of the same length as the 
court. D, is an inner porch, at the entrance into the 
main building. The gates were always shut, and a ser- 
vant acted the part of porter. (John xvii. 16, 17. Acts 
xii. 13.) The roofs were flat, (as they still are,) and were 
formed of earth, spread evenly along, and rolled very 



252 ON THE DWELLINGS OF THE JEWS 

hard, to exclude the rain ; but upon this surface, grass and 
weeds grow freely, to which there is an allusion in Psal. 
cxxix. 6. and Isa. xxxvii. 27. These roofs are surround- 
ed by a wall, breast high, to prevent persons from falling 
through : such a defence, or battlement, was required by 
Deut. xxii. 8. It was this parapet which the men de- 
molished, in order to let the paralytic down into the court, 
or area of the house. (Mark ii. 4. Luke v. 19.) The 
back part of the house is allotted to the women : in Ara- 
bic it is called the Harem, and in the Old Testament the 
Palace. Manahem, king of Israel, was assassinated in 
his harem, or palace. (2 Kings xv. 25.) The harem 
of Solomon was an inner and separate building. (1 Kings 
vii. 8. 2 Chron viii. 11.) 

The furniture of the oriental dwellings, at least in the 
earliest ages, was very simple : that of the poorer classes, 
consisted of but few articles, and those such as were ab- 
solutely necessary. Instead of chairs, they sat on mats, 
or skins ; and the same articles on which they laid a 
mattress, served them instead of bedsteads, while their 
upper garment served them for a covering. (Exod. xxii. 
25, 26. Deut. xxiv. 12.) This circumstance accounts 
for our Lord's commanding the paralytic to take up his 
bed and go unto his house. (Matt. ix. 6.) The more 
opulent had (as those in the East still have) fine carpets, 
couches, or divans, and sofas, on which they sit, lay, and 
slept. (2 Kings iv. 10. 2 Sam. xvii. 28.) In later times, 
their couches were splendid, and the frames inlaid with 
ivory, (Amos vi. 4,) and the coverlids rich and perfumed. 
(Prov. vii. 16, 17.) On these sofas, in the latter ages of 
the Jewish state, (for before the time of Moses, it appears 
to have been the custom to sit at table, Gen. xliii. 33.) 
they universally reclined when taking their meals, (Amos 
vi. 4. Luke vii. 36 — 38,) resting on their side, with 
their heads towards the table, so that their feet were ac- 
cessible to one who came behind the couch. 



ON THE DRLSS OF THE JEWS. 253 

CHAPTER II. 

ON THE DRESS OF THE JEWS. 

In the early ages, the dress of mankind was very sim- 
ple. Skins of animals, furnished the first materials, which, 
as men increased in numbers and civilization, were ex- 
changed for more costly articles, made of wool and ftax, 
of which they manufactured woollen and linen garments ; 
(Levit. xiii. 47. Prov. xxxi. 13 ;) afterwards, fine linen 
and silk, dyed with purple, scarlet, and crimson, became 
the usual apparel of the more opulent. (2 Sam, i. 24. 
Prov. xxxi. 22. Luke xvi. 19.) In the more early ages, 
garments of various colours were in great esteem : such 
was Joseph's robe, of which his envious brethren stripped 
him, when they resolved to sell him. (Gen. xxxvii. 23.) 
The daughters of kings, wore richly embroidered vests. 
(Psal. xlv. 13, 14.) It appears that the Jewish garments, 
were worn pretty long ; for it is mentioned, as an aggra- 
vation of the affront done to David's ambassadors, by the 
king of Ammon, that he cut off their garments in the mid~ 
die, even to their buttocks. (2 Sam. x. 4.) 

The most simple and ancient garment, was a tunic ; it 
was a piece of cloth, commonly linen, which encircled the 
whole body, was bound with a girdle, and descended to 
the knees. Those who are clothed with a tunic merely, 
are sometimes said to be naked, as in John xxi. 7. An 
under garment, or shirt, was worn under the tunic. To 
prevent the latter from impeding the person, girdles were 
worn round the loins, whence various figurative expres- 
sions are derived in the Scriptures, to denote preparation, 
active employment, and despatch. Sometimes, also, these 
girdles served as a pouch to carry money, and other ne- 
cessary things. (Matt. x. 9. Mark vi. 8.) Over the 
tunic was worn an upper garment, or mantle : it was a 
piece of cloth nearly square, several feet in length and 
breadth, which was wrapped round the body, or tied over 
the shoulders. The feet were protected from injury, by 
sandals bound round the feet ; to loose and bind them on, 
was the office of the lowest menial servants. The beard 
was considered a great ornament : to pluck, or mar it in 
any way, was considered a great disgrace. (2 Sam. x. 4.) 

22 



254 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE JEWS. 

A heavy head of hair, was considered a great ornament, 
(2 Sam. xiv. 26,) as baldness was accounted a source of 
contempt. (2 Kings ii. 23.) The hair was combed, set 
in order, and anointed, especially on festive occasions. 
To this practice, there are very numerous allusions in the 
Scriptures. A sort of mitre, probably similar to the mo- 
dern turbans, was worn to defend the head. A prodi- 
gious number of magnificent habits was, anciently, re- 
garded as a necessary part of the treasures of the rich : 
and the practice of amassing them is alluded to in Job 
xxvii. 6, and Matt. vi. 19. It appears from Psal. xlv. 8, 
that the wardrobes of the East, were plenteously perfu- 
med with aromatics. 

The dress of the women differed from that of the men, 
chiefly in the quality of the materials, and in the women 
wearing a veil. Rings, necklaces, pendants, and other 
ornaments, still worn by the fair sex, formed part of the 
apparel of the Jewish ladies : and like the oriental wo- 
men of our time, they tinged their eyelids with the pow- 
der of lead ore. Thus Jezebel did, who, in 2 Kings 
ix. 30, is said to have painted her face : and Job's young- 
est daughter (xli. 14,) had a name (Keren-happuch, that 
is, the horn of pouk, or lead ore,) in reference to this 
practice. 

Mirrors formed an important accompaniment to the 
female wardrobe : anciently, they were made of molten 
brass polished, and were carried in the hand. 



CHAPTER III. 



MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE JEWS, 



Marriage, was regarded by the Jews, as a sacred ob- 
ligation, and celibacy was accounted a great reproach. 
Polygamy was tolerated, but not authoritatively allowed. 
The concubines, of whom we read, were secondary, or 
inferior wives, whose children did not inherit the father's 
property, except on failure of issue by the primary, or 
more honourable wives. Thus, Sarah was Abraham's pri- 
mary wife, by whom he had Isaac, who was the heir of his 
wealth. But besides her, he had two concubines, namely, 



MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE JEWS. 355 

Hagar and Keturah ; by these he had other children, 
whom he distinguished from Isaac : for it is said, he gave 
them gifts, and sent them away while he yet lived. 
(Gen. xxv. 5, 6.) 

No formalities appear to have been used by the Jews 
— at least none were enjoined to them by Moses — in join- 
ing man and wife together. Mutual consent, followed by 
consummation, was deemed sufficient. The manner in 
which a daughter was demanded in marriage, is described 
in the case of Shechem, who asked Dinah, the daughter 
of Jacob, in marriage; (Gen. xxxiv. 6 — 12;) and the na- 
ture of the contract, together with the mode of solemni- 
zing the marriage, is described in Gen. xxiv. 50, 51 . 57. 
67. There was indeed, a previous espousal, or betroth- 
ing, which was a solemn promise of marriage, made by 
the man and woman, each to the other, at such a distance 
of time as they agreed upon. This was sometimes done 
by writing, sometimes by the delivery of a piece of silver 
to the bride, in presence of witnesses, as a pledge of their 
mutual engagements. After such espousal was made, 
(which was generally when the parties were young,) the 
woman continued with her parents several months, if not 
some years, (at least till she was arrived at the age of 
twelve,) before she was brought home, and her marriage 
consummated. That it was the practice to betroth the 
bride sometime before the consummation of the marriage, 
is evident from Deut. xx. 7. Thus we find, that Samson's 
wife remained with her parents a considerable time after 
the espousal. (Judg. xiv. 8.) If, during the time between 
the espousal and the marriage, the bride was guilty of any 
criminal correspondence with another person, contrary to 
the fidelity she owed to her bridegroom, she was treated 
as an adulteress. Among the Jews, and generally through- 
out the East, marriage was considered as a sort of pur- 
chase, which the man made of the woman he desired to 
marry ; and therefore, in contracting marriages, as the 
wife brought a portion to the husband, so the husband was 
obliged to give her or her parents money, or presents, in 
lieu of this portion. See instances in Gen. xxxiv. 12, 
xxix. 18. 1 Sam xviii. 25. The nuptial solemnity, was 
celebrated with great festivity and splendour. The para- 



256 BIRTH, EDUCATION, ETC. OF CHILDREN. 

ble of the tea virgins in Matt. xxv. gives a good idea of the 
customs practised on these occasions. 

Marriage was dissolved among the Jews by divorce as 
well as by death. Our Saviour tells us that Moses suf- 
fered this only because of the hardness of their heart, but 
from the beginning it was not so, (Matt. xix. 8,) mean- 
ing that they were accustomed to this abuse ; and to pre- 
vent greater evils, such as murders, adulteries, &c, he 
permitted it ; and he expressly limited the permission of 
divorce to the single case of adultery. (Matt. v. 31, 32.) 
Nor was this limitation unnecessary : for at that time it 
was common for the Jews, to dissolve this sacred union, 
upon verv slight and trivial pretensions. 



CHAPTER IV. 

BIIITH, EDUCATION, ETC. OF CHILDREN. 

In the East, child-birth is, to this day, an event of but 
little difficulty, and mothers were originally the only as- 
sistants of their daughters, an} 7 further aid being deemed 
unnecessary, though midwives were sometimes emplov- 
ed. (Exod. i. 19. Gen. xxxv. 17, xxxviii. 28.) The "birth 
of a son was celebrated as a festival, which was solemni- 
zed in succeeding years with renewed demonstrations of 
joy, especially those of sovereign princes. (Gen. xl. 20. 
Job i. 4. Matt. xiv. 6.) The birth of a son, or daughter, 
rendered the mother ceremonially unclean for a certain 
period. 

On the eighth day after his birth, the son was circum- 
cised, and received a name. The Jirst-boim son, enjoy- 
ed peculiar privileges. He received a double portion of 
the estate : he was the high priest of the whole family ; 
and he enjoyed an authority over those who were younger, 
similar to that possessed by a father. The sons remained 
till the fifth year in the care of the women ; after which, 
the father took charge of them, and instructed them, or 
caused them to be instructed, in the arts and duties of life, 
and in the law of Moses. (Deut. vi. 20 — 25, xi. 19.) 
The daughters rarely went out, unless sent for a specific 
purpose. Where there were no children, adoption — or the 



ON THE CONDITION OF SLAVES, ETC. 257 

taking of a stranger into a family, in order to make him 
a part of it, acknowledging him as a son and heir to the 
estate — was practised. The elder Hebrews, indeed, do 
not appear to have had recourse to adoption, because 
Moses is silent concerning it in his laws. It was, however, 
common in the time of Jesus Christ ; and St. Paul has 
many beautiful allusions to it in his epistles. 



CHAPTER V. 

ON THE CONDITION OF SLAVES, AND THE CL3T0MS RELATING TO THEM, MEN- 
TIONED, OR ALLUDED TO IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Slavery is of very remote antiquity. It existed before 
the flood : (Gen. ix. 25 :) and when Moses gave his laws 
to the Jews, finding it already established, though he 
could not abolish it, yet he enacted various salutary laws 
and regulations. 

Slaves were acquired in various ways, viz. : 1. By 
Captivity; (Gen. xiv. 14. Deut. xx. 14, xxi. 10, 11 ;) 

2. By Debt, when persons, being poor, were sold for pay- 
ment of their debts ; (2 Kings iv. 1. Matt, xviii. 25 ;) 

3. By committing a Theft, without the power of making 
restitution; (Exod. xxii. 2, 3. Neh. v. 4, 5;) and 4. 
By Birth, when persons were born of married slaves, 
These are termed born in the house, (Gen. xiv. 14, xv. 3, 
xvii. 23, xxi. 10,) home-born, (Jer. ii. 14,) and the sons, 
or children of handmaids. (Psal. lxxxvi. 16, cxvi. 16.) 

Slaves received both food and clothing, for the most 
part of the meanest quality, but whatever property they 
acquired, belonged to their lords : hence, they are said to 
be worth double the value of a hired servant. (Deut. xv. 
18.) They formed marriages at the will of their master, 
but their children were slaves, who, though they could 
not call him a father, (Gal. iv. 6. Rom. viii. 15,) yet they 
were attached and faithful to him as to a father ; on which 
account, the patriarchs trusted them with arms. (Gen. 
xiv. 14, xxxii. 6, xxxiii. 1.) Their duty was to execute 
their lord's commands, and they were, for the most part, 
employed in tending cattle, or in rural affairs : and 
though the lot of some of them was sufficiently hard, 
22* 



258 ON THE CONDITION OF SLAVES, ETC. 

yet under a mild and humane master, it was tolerable. 
(Job xiii. 13.) When the eastern people have no male 
issue, they frequently (as in Barbary) marry their daughters 
to their slaves : so Sheshan did, who gave his daughter 
to his Egyptian servant [slave] Jarha. (See 1 Chron. ii. 
34, 35.) Various regulations were made by Moses to 
ensure the humane treatment of slaves ; among which 
the three following, are particularly worthy of notice ; 1. 
Hebrew slaves were to continue in slavery only till the 
year of jubilee, when they might return to liberty, and 
their masters could not detain them against their wills. 
If they were desirous of continuing with their master, 
they were to be brought to the judges ; before whom they 
were to make a declaration, that, for this time, they dis- 
claimed the privilege of the law: and they had their ears 
bored through with an awl, against the door-posts of their 
master's house, after which, they had no longer any power 
of recovering their liberty until the next year of jubi- 
lee, after forty-nine years. (Exod. xxi. 5, 6.) 2. If a 
Hebrew by birth, was sold to a stranger, or alien, dwell- 
ing in the vicinity of the land of Israel, his relations were 
to redeem him, and such slave was to make good the pur- 
chase money, if he were able, paying in proportion to the 
number of years that remained, until the year of jubilee. 
(Lev. xxv. 47 — 55.) 3. Lastly, if a slave of another na- 
tion fled to the Hebrews, he was to be received hospi- 
tably, and on no account to be given up to his master. 
(Deut. xxiii. 15, 16.) 

Although Moses inculcated the duty of humane treat- 
ment towards slaves, and enforced his statutes by vari- 
ous strong sanctions, yet it appears from Jer. xxxiv. 8 — 
22, that their condition was sometimes very wretched ; 
and, in later times, among the Greeks and Romans, it 
was, in general, truly miserable. Being for the most 
part captives taken in war, they were bought and sold 
like beasts of burden ; and were at the mercy of their 
owners, who had an absolute right over their lives, and 
who branded them, in order to mark their property. To 
the practice of buying, purchasing, and branding slaves, 
St. Paul has several fine allusions. See particularly, 1 
Cor. vi. 20, vii. 23, and Gal. vi. 17. The confinement 
of slaves in mines, appears to bs referred to in Matt. viii. 



DOMESTIC CUSTOMS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 259 

12, and xxii. 13, and crucifixion was a punishment al- 
most exclusively reserved for them : whence St. Paul 
takes occasion to illustrate the love of Christ for fallen 
man, who, for the joy that was set before him, endured 
the cross, despising the shame and ignominy of such a 
death. 



CHAPTER VI. 

DOMESTIC CUSTOMS AND USAGES OP THE JEWS. 

Various are the modes of address and politeness, which 
custom has established in different nations. The ordinary 
formulae of salutation were — The Lord be with thee! — 
The Lord bless thee ! — and Blessed be thou of the Lord ! 
but the most common salutation was, Peace (that is, may 
all manner of prosperity) be with thee ! (Ruth ii. 4. 
Judg. xix. 20. 1 Sam. xxv. 6. 2 Sam. xx. 9. Psal. cxxix 
8.) In the later period of the Jewish polity, much time 
appears to have been spent in the rigid observance of these 
ceremonious forms : which are alluded to m Matt. x. 12. 
See also 2 Kings iv. 29. 

Respect was shown to persons on meeting, by the salu- 
tation of Peace be with you ! and laying the right hand 
upon the bosom : but if the person addressed was of the 
highest rank, they bowed to the earth. Thus, Jacob bowed 
to the ground seven times until he came near to his brother 
Esau, (Gen. xxxiii. 3.) Sometimes they kissed the hem 
of the person's garment, and even the dust on which he 
had to tread. (Zech. viii. 23. Luke viii. 44. Acts x. 26. 
Psal. lxxii. 9.) Near relations and intimate acquain- 
tances kissed each other's hands, head, neck, beard, (which 
on such occasions, only, could be touched without affront,) 
or shoulders. (Gen. xxxiii. 4, xlv. 14. 2 Sam. xx. 9. Luke 
xv. 20. Acts xx. 17.) 

Whenever the common people approached their prince, 
or any person of superior rank, it was customary for them 
to prostrate themselves before them. The allusions to 
this practice, in the Old and New Testaments, are very 
numerous ; as well as to the making of presents to supe- 
riors. (See particularly Matt, ii 11.) 



260 DOMESTIC CUSTOMS 

When any person visited another, he stood at the gate 
and knocked, or called aloud, until the person on whom 
he called admitted him. (2 Kings v. 9 — 12. Acts x. 17, xii. 
13, 16.) Visiters were always received and dismissed 
with great respect. On their arrival, water was brought 
to wash their feet and hands, (Gen. xviii. 4, xix. 2,) after 
which the guests were anointed with oil. David alludes 
to this in Psal. xxiii. 5, and Solomon, in Prov. xxvii. 9. 
The same practice obtained in our Saviour's time. (Luke 
vii. 44, 45.) 

The Jews rose early, about the dawn of day, when they 
breakfasted. They dined about eleven in the forenoon, 
and supped at five in the afternoon. Their food consist- 
ed principally of bread, milk, rice, vegetables, honey, and 
sometimes of locusts, except at the appointed festivals, or 
when they offered their feast-offerings : at these times 
they ate animal food, of which they appear to have been 
very fond. (Numb. xi. 4.) But they were prohibited from 
eating the flesh of certain animals, as well as with people 
of another religion. The pottage which Jacob had pre- 
pared, and which was so tempting to Esau as to make 
him sell his birthright, shows the simplicity of the ordi- 
nary diet of the patriarchs. Isaac, in his old age, longed 
for savoury meat, which was accordingly prepared for him ; 
(Gen. xxvii. 4. 17;) but this was an unusual thing. 
The feast with which Abraham entertained the three 
angels was a calf, new cakes baked on the hearth, together 
with butter (ghee) and milk. (Gen. xviii. 6, 7.) We 
may form a correct idea of their ordinary food by the ar- 
ticles which were presented to David on various occasions 
by Abigail, (1 Sam. xxv. IS,) by Ziba, (2 Sam. xvi. 1,) 
and by Barzillai. (2 Sam. xvii. 28, 29.) Their ordinary 
beverage was water, which was drawn from the public 
wells and fountains, (John iv. 6, 7,) and which was to be 
refused to no one. (John vi. 9. Matt. xxv. 35.) Wine of 
different sorts, which was preserved in skins, was also 
drunk by the Jews, after their settlement in the land of 
Canaan. Red wine seems to have been most esteemed. 
(Prov. xxiii. 31. Rev. xiv. 20, xix. 3. 18.) The women 
did not appear at table in entertainments with the 
men. This would have been then, as it is at this day 
throughout the East, an indecency. Thus, Vashti the 



AND USAGES OF THE JEWS. 



261 



Queen made a feast for the women in the royal house, 
which belonged to Ahasuerus, (E&ther i. 9,) while the 
Persian monarch was feasting his nobles. 

The Hebrews anciently sat at table as we do now ; af- 
terwards, they imitated the Persians and Chaldaeans, who 
reclined on table-beds, or couches, while eating ; some 
traces of these couches are, nevertheless, observed in 
Amos, (vi. 4, 7,) Ezekiel, (xxiii. 47,) and Tobit; (ii. 4;) 
but this use was not general. We see expressions in the 
sacred authors of those times, which prove that they also 
sat at table. At Ahasuerus's banquet, (Esth. i. 6,) the 
company lay on beds, and also at that which Esther gave 
the king and Haman. (Esth. vii. 8.) Our Saviour, in 
like manner, reclined at table, when Mary Magdalen 
anointed his feet with perfume, (Matt. xxvi. 7,) and when 
John, at the last supper, rested his head on his bosom. 
(John xiii. 25.) 

When persons journeyed, they provided themselves with 
every necessary; women and rich men frequently travel- 
led on asses or camels, which carried not only their mer- 
chandise, but also their household goods and chattels. 
The Jews often travelled in caravans, or companies, (as 
the inhabitants of the East do to this day,) especially 
when they went up to Jerusalem at the three great annual 
festivals. The company, among which Joseph and Mary 
supposed Jesus to have been, on their return from the 
passover, when he was twelve years old, (Luke ii. 42 — 
44,) was one of these caravans. 

In the East, anciently, as well as in modern times, 
there were no inns, in which the traveller could meet 
with refreshment. Hence hospitality was deemed a sa- 
cred duty incumbent upon every one. The sacred wri- 
tings exhibit several instances of hospitality exercised by 
the patriarchs. (Gen. xviii. 2, 3, &c, xix. 1—3.) St. 
Paul and St. Peter frequently enforce the sacred duty of 
hospitality. 



262 



ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC. 



CHAPTER VI 



ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES OF THE HEBREWS 



Section T. — Agriculture and Horticulture of the Jews. 

Agriculture, including sheep husbandry, was the prin* 
cipal occupation of the patriarchs and their families : and, 
in succeeding ages, the greatest men, as Moses, David, and 
others, did not disdain to follow husbandry, however mean 
that occupation may be accounted in modern times. All 
the Mosaic statutes, indeed, were admirably calculated to 
encourage agriculture, as the chief basis of national pros- 
perity, and also to preserve the Israelites detached from 
the surrounding idolatrous nations. 

Although the Scriptures do not furnish us with any 
details respecting the state of agriculture in Judasa, yet 
we may collect from various passages many interesting 
hints that will enable us to form a tolerably correct idea 
of the high state of its cultivation. With the use of ma- 
nures, the Jews were unquestionably acquainted. Salt, 
either by itself, or mixed in the dunghill, in order to pro- 
mote putrefaction, is specially mentioned as one article of 
manure : (Matt. v. 13. Luke xiv. 34, 35 :) and as the river 
Jordan annually overflowed its banks, the mud deposited 
when its waters subsided must have served as a valuable 
irrigation and top-dressing, particularly to the pasture 
lands. It is probable that, after the waters had thus sub- 
sided, seed was sown on the wet soft ground ; in allusion 
to which, Solomon says, Cast thy bread (corn or seed) 
upon the waters : for thou shalt find it again, with in- 
crease, after many days. (Eccles. xi. 1.) And Isaiah, 
promising a time of peace and plenty, says— Blessed are 
ye that sow beside all waters, and send forth thither the 
feet of the ox and the ass. (Isa. xxxii. 20.) 

The method of managing the ground and preparing it 
for the seed, was much the same with the practice of 
the present times ; for Jeremiah speaks of ploughing up 
the fallow ground, (Jer. iv. 3,) and Isaiah of harrowing, 
or breaking up the clods ; (Isa. xxviii. 24;) but Moses, for 
wise reasons doubtless, gave a positive injunction, that 
they should not sow their fields with mingled seed. 



OF THE HEBREWS. 263 

The kinds of grain sowed by the Jews were fitches, 
cummin, wheat, barley, and rice: (Isa. xxviii. 25:) there 
were three months between their sowing and their first 
reaping, and four months to their full harvest : their bar- 
ley-harvest was at the passover, and their wheat-harvest at 
the pentecost. The reapers made use of sickles, and ac- 
cording to the present custom they filled their hands with 
the corn, and those that bound up the sheaves, their bosom : 
there was a person set over the reapers, (Ruth ii. 5,) to see 
that they did their work, that they had provision proper for 
them, and to pay them their wages. Women were employ- 
ed in reaping as well as the men. The poor were allowed 
the liberty of gleaning, though the land-owners were not 
bound to admit them immediately into the field as soon as the 
reapers had cut down the corn and bound it up in sheaves, 
but after it was carried off: they might also choose those 
among the poor, whom they thought most worthy or most 
necessitous. The conclusion of the harvest, or carrying 
home the la«st load, was with the Jews a season of joyous 
festivity, and was celebrated with a harvest-feast. (Psal. 
cxxvi. Isa. ix. 3, xvi. 9, 10.( The corn being cut and 
carried in wagons or carts, (Numb. vii. 3 — 8. Isa. v. 8, 
xxviii. 27, 28. Amos ii. 13,) was either laid up in stacks 
(Exod xxii. 6,) or barns; (Matt. vi. 26, xiii. 30. Lukexiii. 
18. 24 ;) and, when thrashed out, was stored in graneries 
or garners. (Psal. xliv. 13. Matt. iii. 12.) David had 
storehouses in the fields, in the cities, and in the villages, 
and in the castles. (1 Chron. xxvii. 25.) 

After the grain was carried into the barn, the next pro- 
cess was to thrash, or beat the corn out of the ear ; this 
was performed in various ways. Sometimes it was done 
by horses (Isa. xxviii. 28,) and by oxen, that trod out the 
corn, with their hoofs shod with brass. (Mic. iv. 12, 13.) 
This mode of thrashing is expressly referred to by Hosea, 
(x. 11,) and in the prohibition of Moses against muzzling 
the ox that treadeth out the corn, (Deut. xxv. 4,) and it 
obtains in India to this day. Other modes of thrashing 
are mentioned in Isa. xxviii. 28, Judg. vi. 11, and 1 
Chron. xxi. 20. When the corn was ihus thrashed, it 
was dried either in the sun, or by a fire, or in a furnace. 
This is called parched corn, (Levit. xxiii. 14, 1 Sam. xvii. 
17 and xxv. 18,) and was sometimes used in this manner 



264 



ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC. 



for food, without any further preparation ; but generally, 
the parching- or drying it was in order to make it more fit for 
grinding. This process was performed either in mortars 
or mills, both of which are mentioned in Numb. xi. 8 : 
but mills were chiefly employed for this purpose ; and 
they were deemed of such use and necessity, that the Is- 
raelites were strictly forbidden to take the nether oi ^pper 
millstone in pledge; the reason of which is added, be- 
cause this was taking a man's life in pledge ; (Deut. xxiv. 
6 ;) intimating that while the mill ceases to grind, people 
are in danger of being starved. 

The grinding at mills was accounted an inferior sort of 
work, and therefore prisoners and captives were generally 
put to it. To this work Samson was set, while he was in 
the prison-house. (Judg. xvi. 21.) There hand-mills 
were usually kept, by which prisoners earned their living. 
The expression in Isa. xlvii. 2 — Take the millstones and 
grind meal — is part of the description of a slave ; but, for 
the most part, the women-servants were employed in this 
drudgery, as is evident from Matt. xxiv. 1. This was in 
use not only among the Jews, but also among the Egyp- 
tians and Chaldeans, as appears from Exod. xi. 5, and Lam. 
v. 13. The various processes of agriculture have furnished 
the sacred writers with numerous beautiful allusions. Pa- 
lestine abounded with generous wine; and in some districts 
the grapes were of superior quality. The canton allotted 
to Judah was celebrated on this account. In this district 
were the vales of Sorek and of Eshcol ; and the cluster, 
which the Hebrew spies carried from this last place, was 
so large as to be carried on a staff between two of them ; 
(Numb. xiii. 23 ;) Lebanon (Hos. xiv. 7.) and Helbon 
(Ezek. xxvii. 18,) were likewise celebrated for their ex- 
quisite wines. Grapes were also dried into raisins. (1 
Sam. xxv. 18. 2 Sam. xvi. 1.) 

The ancient Hebrews were very fond of gardens, which 
are frequently mentioned in the sacred writings; and de- 
rive their appellations from the prevalence of certain trees, 
as the garden of nuts and of pomegranates. (Sol. Song 
vi. 11, iv. 13.) Besides these and other fruits, which 
were common in Judaea, (as dates, figs, &c.) they had 
regular plantations of olives, the oil expressed from which 
furnished a profitable article of commerce with the Tyrians : 
(EzeV xxxii. 17. compared with 1 Kings v. 11 :) and 



OF THE HEBREWS. 265 

among the judgments with which God threatened the 
Israelites for their sins, it was denounced, that though they 
had olive trees through all their coasts yet they should 
not anoint themselves with the oil, for the olive should cast 
he* fruit. (Deut. xxviii. 40.) 



Section II. —On the Arts and Sciences of the Jews. 

Of the Arts practised by the Hebrews, in the earlier 
periods of their history, we have but few notices in the 
&acred writings. From the mention of utensils, ornaments, 
and other things, which imply some knowledge of the 
arts, in the book of Genesis, it is evident that considerable 
progress must have been made in the time of Noah : and 
it is scarcely credible that the Hebrews could have resided 
four hundred years in Egypt, without acquiring some 
knowledge of those arts, which their masters are allowed 
to have possessed. Soon after the death of Joshua, a 
place was expressly allotted to artificers : for, in the 
genea'logy of the tribe of Judah, delivered in 1 Chron. iv. 
14, we read of a place called the Valley of Craftsmen, 
and (ver. 21. 23,) of a family of workmen of fine linen, 
and another of potters : and when Jerusalem was taken 
by Nebuchadnezzar, the enemy carried away all the 
craftsmen and smiths. (2 Kings xxiv. 14.) But, as a 
proof that their skill in manufactures and trade therein 
could not be very extensive, we find that the prophet 
Ezekiel, (chap, xxvii.) in describing the affluence of the 
goods which came to Tyre, mentions nothing as being 
brought thither from Judsea, except wheat, oil, grapes, and 
balm, which were all the natural products of their ground. 
From Prov. xxxi. 13, it appears that the mistresses of 
families usually made the clothing for their husbands, 
their children, and themselves. 

Their knowledge in the Liberal Arts does not seem 
to have greatly exceeded their skill in mechanics. They 
knew but little of astronomy and the motions of the hea- 
venly bodies. Solomon, indeed, was a noble pattern of 
knowledge and wisdom. His skill in natural philosophy 
is sufficiently indicated, when we are told, that he spake 
of trees from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon, even to the 
hyssop that springeth out of the wall ; he spake also of 



266 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, &c. 

beasts, and of fowls, and of creeping things, and of fishes. 
(1 Kings iv. 33.) His books of Proverbs andEcclesiastes 
abundantly inform us what skill he had in ethics, econo- 
mics, and politics : but as the wonderful talents, with which 
he was endued, were the immediate gift of God, and in 
compliance with his special request for divine wisdom, (2 
Chron. i. 7 — 13,) so singular an instance is no rule, by 
which we ought to judge of the genius of the whole na- 
tion. 

Nor did Building or Architecture attain much perfec- 
tion prior to the reign of the accomplished Solomon. We 
read, indeed, before the Israelites came into the land of 
Canaan, that Bezaleel and Aholiab (who were employed 
in the construction of the tabernacle (excelled in all man- 
ner of workmanship, (Exod. xxxv. 30 — 35,) but we are 
there told, that they had their skill by inspiration from 
God, and it does not appear that they had any successors : 
for in the days of Solomon, when the Israelites were at rest 
from all their enemies, and at full freedom to follow out 
improvements of every kind, yet they had no professed ar- 
tists that could undertake the work of the temple ; so that 
Solomon was obliged to send to Hiram, king of Tyre, for a 
skilful artist ; (2 Chron. vii. 13, 14;) by whose direction 
the model of the temple, and all the curious furniture of 
it, was both designed' and finished. But, after the Jews 
were under the influence or power of the Romans, there 
is po doubt that a better taste prevailed among them. 
Herod, at least, must have employed some architects of dis- 
tinguished abilities to repair and beautify the temple, and 
lender it the superb structure, which the description of 
Josephus shows that it must have been. 

"We read nothing of the art of Writing, in Scripture, 
before the copy of the law was given by God to Moses, 
which was written (that is engraven,) on two tables of 
stone by the finger of God, (Exod. xxxi. 18,) and this is 
called the writing of God. (Exod. xxxii. 16.) It is there- 
fore probable that God himself first taught letters to Moses, 
who communicated the knowledge of them to the Israel- 
ites, and they to the other eastern nations. Engraving 
or sculpture seems, therefore, to be the most ancient way 
of writing, of which we have another very early instance 
in Exod. xxxix. 30, where we are told, that " Holiness to 



OF THE HEBREWS. 267 

the Lord" was written on a golden plate, and worn on the 
high priest's head. And we find that the names of the 
twelve tribes were commanded to be written on twelve rods. 
(Numb. xvii. 2.) Afterwards they made use of broad 
rushes or flags for writing on, which grew in great abun- 
dance in Egypt, and are noticed by the prophet Isaiah, 
when foretelling the confusion of that country. (Isa. xix. 
6, 7.) 

The other eastern nations made use chiefly of parch- 
ment, being the thin skins of animals carefully dressed. 
The best was made at Pergamos, whence it was called 
Ckarta Pergamena. It is probable that the Jews learn- 
ed the use of it from them, and that this is what is meant 
by a roll, (Ezra vi. 2,) and a roll of a book, (Jer. xxxvi. 
2,) and a scroll rolled together: (Isa. xxxiv. 4:) for it could 
not be thin and weak paper, but parchment, which is of 
some consistency, that was capable of being thus rolled 
up. St. Paul is the only person who makes express 
mention of parchment. (2 Tim. iv. 13.) In Job xix. 
24, and in Jer. xvii. 1, there is mention made of pens of 
iron, with which they probably made the letters, when 
they engraved on stone or other hard substances : but for 
softer materials they, in all probability, made use of quills 
or reeds ; for we are told of some in the tribe of Zebulun 
who handled the pen of the writer. (Judg. v. 14.) Da- 
vid alludes to the jpen of a ready writer, (Psal. xlv. 1,) and 
Baruch, wrote the words of Jeremiah with ink in a book. 
(Jer. xxxvi. 18.) 

Of the poetry and music of the Hebrews we have more 
ample information. 

The genius of their Poetry having been already dis- 
cussed in pages 108 — 111, it is sufficient here to remark, 
that the effusions of the inspired Hebrew muse infinitely 
surpass in grandeur, sublimity, beauty, and pathos, all the 
most celebrated productions of Greece and Rome. Not 
to repeat unnecessarily the observations already offered 
on this topic, we may here briefly remark, that the eucha- 
ristic song of Moses, composed on the deliverance of the 
Israelites and their miraculous passage of the Red Sea, 
(Exod. xv. 1 — 19,) is an admirable hymn, full of strong 
and lively images. The song of Deborah and Barak 
(Judg. v.) and that of Hannah, the mother of Samuel, (1 



268 0N THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC. 

Sam. ii. 1,) have many excellent flights, and some noble 
and sublime raptures. David's lamentation on the death 
of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 19 — 27,) is an incompa- 
rable elegy. The gratulatory hymn (Isa. xii.) and Heze- 
kiah's song of praise, (Isa. xxviii.) are worthy of every 
one's attention. The prayer of Habakkuk (iii.) contains 
a sublime description of the divine majest)'. Besides 
these single hymns we have the books of Psalms, Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes, Canticles, and Lamentations ; all of which 
are composed by different poets, according to the usage 
of those times. The Psalms are a great storehouse of 
heavenly devotion, full of affecting and sublime thoughts, 
and with a variety of expressions admirably calculated to 
excite a thankful remembrance of God's mercies, and for 
moving the passions of joy and grief, indignation and ha- 
tred. They consist mostly of pious and affectionate pik- 
ers, holy meditations, and exalted strains of praise and 
thanksgiving, intermingled with sublime descriptions, and 
most beautiful allusions. 

Their sacred songs were accompanied with Music, the 
nature of which it is now as difficult to determine, as it is 
to ascertain with precision the various musical instruments 
which were in use among them, without entering into de- 
tails and conjectures which are inconsistent with the plan 
of this volume. Referring the reader, therefore, to the 
author's larger work, in which he has attempted to collect 
the most probable accounts, he will only remark in this 
place, that, if any conclusions may be drawn concerning 
the Hebrew music from its effects, the sacred history has 
recorded several examples of the power and charms of 
music, to sweeten the temper, to compose and allay the 
passions of the mind, to revive the drooping spirits, and to 
dissipate melancholy. It had this effect on Saul, when 
David played to him on his harp. (1 Sam. xvi. 16. 23.) 
And when Elisha w r as desired bv Jehoshaphat to tell him 
what his success against the king of Moab would oe, tne 
prophet required a minstrel to be brought unto him : and 
when he played, it is said, that the hand of the Lord came 
upon him ; (2 Kings iii. 15 ;) not that the gift of prophecy 
was the natural effect of music, but the meaning is, that 
music disposed the organs, the humours, and, in short, the 



OF THE HEBREWS. 269 

whole mmd and spirit of the prophet, to receive these 
supernatural impressions. 

But music was not exclusively confined to religious 
worship. From Gen. xxxi. 27, Isa. v. 2, and xxiv. 8, it 
appears that music was employed on all solemn occasions 
of entertaining their friends, and also at other entertain- 
ments. That music and dancing were used among the 
Jews at their feasts, in latter ages, may be inferred from 
the parable of the prodigal son. (Luke xv. 25.) Further, 
dancing was also an ordinary concomitant of music among 
the Jews ; sometimes it was used on a religious account. 
Thus, Miriam with her women glorified God (after the 
deliverance from the Egyptians) in dances as well as 
songs, (Exod. xv. 20,) and David danced after the ark. 
(2 Sam. ii. 16.) It was a thing common at the Jewish 
feasts, (Judg. xxi. 19, 21,) and in public triumphs, (Judg. 
xi. 34,) and at all seasons of mirth and rejoicing. (Psal. 
xxx. 11. Jer. xxxi. 4, 13. Luke xv. 25.) The idolatrous 
Jews made it a part of the worship which they paid to the 
golden calf. (Exod. xxxii. 19.) The Amalekites danced 
after their victory at Ziklag, (1 Sam. xxx. 16,) and Job 
makes it part of the character of the prosperous wicked, 
(that is, of those who, placing all their happiness in the 
enjoyments of sense, forget God and religion,) that their 
children dance. (Job. xxi. 11.) The dancing of the pro- 
fligate Herodias's daughter pleased Herod so highly, that 
he promised to give her whatever she asked, and accord- 
ingly, at her desire, and in compliment to her, he com- 
manded John the Baptist to be beheaded in prison. (Matt. 
xiv. 6, 7, 8.) 

The diseases to which the human frame is subject would 
naturally lead man to try to alleviate or to remove them. 
Hence sprang the art of Medicine. Anciently, it is said 
to have been the practice to expose the sick on the sides 
of frequented ways, in order that those persons who passed 
along, inquiring into the nature of their complaint, might 
communicate the knowledge of such remedies as had been 
beneficial to themselves under similar circumstances. The 
healing art was unquestionably cultivated ; but there is 
reason to think that the knowledge of the Jews was very 
limited, and that it extended little beyond the curing of a 
green wound, or the binding up of fractures. In the case 

23* 



270 0N THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC. 

of internal disorders, it does not appear to have been cus- 
tomary to call in the aid of a physician. These maladies 
were regarded as the immediate effect of the divine anger, 
and inflicted by evil spirits, as the executioners of his ven- 
geance ; and this was the reason why religious people 
generally had recourse to God only, or to his prophets, 
(see 2 Kings xx. 7,) while the irreligious resorted to false 
gods, and charms or enchantments. (2 Kings i. 2. Jer. 
viii. 17.) 

Various diseases are mentioned in the sacred writings, 
as cancers, consumption, dropsy, epilepsy, fevers, gan- 
grenes, hemorrhoids, or piles, leprosy, (concerning which 
see p. 245, supra,) lunacy, palsy, <fcc. The disease of 
Saul appears to have been a true melancholy madness ; 
that of Nebuchadnezzar, a hypochondriacal madness ; that 
of Job, an incurable elephantiasis, in which the skin be- 
comes uneven and wrinkled with many furrows, like that 
of an elephant, whence it takes its name. 

Lastly, in the New Testament we meet with nume- 
rous cases of what are termed Demoniacal Possession. 
Some eminent writers have supposed that the demoniacs, 
or persons who were possessed by evil spirits, were only 
lunatics. But it is evident that the persons, who in the 
New Testament are said to be possessed with devils, (more 
correctly with demons,) cannot mean only persons afflict- 
ed with some strange disease : for they are evidently 
here, as in other places, — particularly in Luke iv. 33 — 
36, 41 — distinguished from the diseased. Further Christ's 
speaking on various occasions to these evil spirits, as dis- 
tinct from the persons possessed by them, — his command- 
ing them, and asking them questions, and receiving an- 
swers from them, or not suffering them to speak, — and 
several circumstances relating to the terrible preternatural 
effects which they had upon the possessed, and to the 
manner of Christ's evoking them, — particularly their re- 
questing and obtaining permission to enter the herd of 
swine, (Matt. viii. 31, 32,) and precipitating them into the 
sea ; — all these circumstances can never be accounted for 
by any distemper whatever. Nor is it any reasonable 
objection, that we do not read of such frequent posses- 
sions before or since the appearance of our Redeemer upon 
earth. It seems, indeed, to have been ordered by a spe- 



OF THE HEBREWS. 271 

cial providence, that they should have been permitted to 
have then been more common ; in order that He, who 
came t© destroy the works of the Devil, might the more 
remarkably and visibly triumph over him ; and that the 
machinations and devices of Satan might be more openly 
defeated, at a time when their power was at its highest, 
both in the souls and bodies of men ; and also, that plain 
facts might be a sensible confutation of the Sadducean 
error, which denied the existence of angels or spirits, 
(Acts xxiii. 8,) and prevailed among the principal men 
both for rank and learning in those days. The cases of 
the demoniacs expelled by the apostles were cases of real 
possessions : and it is a well known fact, that, in the 
second century of the Christian sera, the apologists for the 
persecuted believers in the faith of Christ, appealed to 
their ejection of evil spirits as a proof of the divine origin 
of their religion. Hence it is evident that the demoniacs 
were not merely insane or epileptic patients, but per- 
sons really and truly vexed and convulsed by unclean 
demons* 



CHAPTER VIIL 

ALLUSIONS TO THE THEATRES, TO THEATRICAL PERFORMANCES, AND TO THE GRE- 
CIAN GAMES, IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

I. Theatrical performances were in great request 
among the Greeks and Romans, and this will account for 
so many theatres being erected in Judaea, soon after that 
country became subject to the Roman power. The 
Epistles of St. Paul, being addressed to Gentiles, abound 
with elegant allusions drawn from the theatre. Thus, in 
1 Cor. vii. 29 — 31, he refers to the personification of the 
woes of others, which was common on the stage, while 
the heart continued unaffected with them, and also to the 
rapid shifting of the scenes. In 1 Cor. iv. 9, he alludes 
to the barbarous practice then common in the Roman 
amphitheatre, where the bestiarii, who in the morning 
combated with wild beasts, had armour with which to de- 
fend themselves, and to slay their antagonists : but the 
last, those who were exposed at noon were naked and 



272 JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD. 

unarmed, and set forth (as our version renders it) to cer- 
tain and cruel death. 

II. But the most splendid and renowned solemnities 
were the Olympic Games, solemnized every fifth year, in 
the presence of a cloud of witnesses or spectators, assem- 
bled from almost every part of the then known world. 
The exercises at these games consisted principally in 
running, wrestling, and the chariot race. The candidates 
were to be freemen and Greeks, of unimpeachable cha- 
racter ; and they were subjected to a long and severe 
regimen. On the day appointed, the names of the can- 
didates were called over by the heralds : and on a given 
signal, those who engaged in the foot-race, rushed for- 
ward towards the goal, in the presence of the assembled 
multitude, and especially of the Hellanodics, persons 
venerable for their years and character, who were appoint- 
ed judges of the games, and whose province it was to 
distribute chaplets composed of the fading sprigs of the 
wild olive, and palm branches, which were conspicuously 
exposed to the view of the candidates. The knowledge 
of these circumstances throws much light and beauty on 
those animating exhortations of St. Paul, in Heb. xii. 1. 
3. 12, 13. Phil. iii. 12—14. 2 Tim. iv. 7, 8, and 1 Cor. 
ix. 24, 25. In the two following verses, he alludes to 
the practice of those who engaged in boxing, as well as 
to the previous discipline to which all candidates were 
subjected. 



CHAPTER IX. 

JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD. — FUNERAL RITES. 

By the law of Moses a dead body conveyed a legal pol- 
lution to every thing that touched it — even to the very 
house and furniture — which continued seven days. (Numb, 
xix. 14, 15, 16.) And this was the reason why the priests, 
on account of their daily ministrations in holy things, were 
forbidden to assist at any funerals but those of their 
nearest relatives ; nay, the very dead bones, though they 
had lain ever so long in the grave, if digged up, conveyed 
a pollution to any who touched them ; and this was the 



FUNERAL RITES. 273 

reason why Josiah caused the bones of the false priests to 
be burnt upon the altar at Bethel, (2 Chron. xxxiv. 5,) to 
the intent that these altars, being thus polluted, might be 
had in the greater detestation. 

When the principle of life was extinguished, the first 
funeral office among the Jews was to close the eyes of the 
deceased. This was done by the nearest of kin. Thus, 
it was promised to Jacob, when he took his journey into 
Egypt, that Joseph should put his hands upon his eyes. 
(Gen. xlvi. 4.) The next office was the ablution of the 
corpse. Thus, when Tabitha died, it is said, that they 
washed her body, and laid it in an upper chamber. (Acts 
ix. 37.) This rite was common both to the Greeks and 
Romans. In Egypt, it is still the custom to wash the 
dead body several times. Loud lamentations attended 
the decease c-f persons, especially those who were greatly 
beloved, not only as soon as they had expired, (Gen. 1. 1. 
Matt. ix. 23. Mark v. 38,) but especially at the time of 
interment. (Gen. 1. 10, 11.) In later times, the Jews 
hired persons, whose profession it was to superintend and 
conduct these funeral lamentations. (Jer. ix. 17, xvi. 
6, 7, xlviii. 36, 37. Ezek. xxiv. 16—18. Amos v. 
16 :) and in the time of Christ, minstrels and mourners 
were hired for this purpose. (Matt. ix. 23. Mark v. 
38. 

After the corpse had been washed it was embalmed in 
costly spices and aromatic drugs, after which it was closely 
swathed in linen rollers, probably resembling those of the 
Egyptian mummies now to be seen in the British Museum. 
So Nicodemus made preparation for the embalming of 
Jesus Christ ; (John xix. 39, 40 ;) and Lazarus appears to 
have been swathed in a similar way, when raised to life 
again by the omnipotent voice of Jesus Christ. (John 
xi. 44.) At the funerals of some Jewish monarchs, great 
piles of aromatics were set on fire, in which were consumed 
their bowels, armour, and other things. (2 Chron. xvi. 
14. Jer. xxxiv. 5.) 

The Jews showed great regard for the burial of their 
dead. To be deprived of interment, was deemed one of 
the greatest dishonours and calamities that could befall 
any person. (Psal. Ixxix. 2. Jer. xxii. 19, xxxvi. 30.) 
Their burial-places were in gardens, fields, and the sides 



274 



JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD. 



of mountains : and over the rich and great were erected 
splendid monuments. To this practice Jesus Christ al- 
ludes in Matt, xxiii. 7. From Isa. Ixv. 4, and Mark v. 
5, it would seem that some tombs had cupolas over them 
which afforded shelter, similar to those which modern 
travellers in the East have seen and described. Family 
sepulchres were in gardens. (John xix. 41.) 

A funeral feast commonly succeeded the Jewish burials. 
Thus, after Abner's funeral was solemnized, the people 
came to David to eat meat with him, though they could 
not persuade him to do so. (2 Sam. iii. 35.) He was 
the chief mourner, and probably had invited them to this 
banquet. Of this Jeremiah speaks, (xvi. 7,) where he 
calls it the cup of consolation, which they drank for their 
father or their mother ; and accordingly the place where 
this funeral entertainment was made is called in the next 
verse the house of feasting. Hosea calls it the bread of 
mourners. (Hos. ix. 4.) 

The usual tokens of mourning, by which the Jews ex- 
pressed their grief and concern for the death of their 
friends and relations, were, the rending of their garments, 
putting on sack-cloth, sprinkling dust upon their heads, 
wearing mourning apparel, and covering the face and 
head. (Gen. xxxvii. 34. 2 Sam. xiv. 2, xix. 4.) 

Anciently, there was a peculiar space of time allotted 
for lamenting the deceased, which they called the days of 
mourning. (Gen. xxvii. 41, and 1. 4.) Thus, the Egyp- 
tians, who had a great regard for the patriarch Jacob, la- 
mented his death threescore and ten days. (Gen. 1. 3.) 
The Israelites wept for Moses in the plains of Moab thirty 
days. (Deut. xxxiv. 8.) Afterwards among the Jews 
the funeral mourning was generally confined to seven 
days. Thus, besides the mourning for Jacob in Egypt, 
Joseph and his company set apart seven days to mourn for 
his father, when they approached the Jordan with his 
corpse. (Gen. 1. 10.) No particular period has been 
recorded, during which widows mourned for their hus- 
bands. Bathsheba is said, generally, to have mourned 
for Uriah ; (2 Sam. xi. 26 ;) but her mourning could 
neither be long nor very sincere. The Jews paid a greater 
or less degree of honour to their kings after their death, 
according to the merits of their actions when they were 



FUNERAL EITES. 275 

alive. On the death of any prince, who had in any way 
distinguished himself, they used to make lamentations or 
mournful songs for them. From an expression in 2 
Chron. xxxv. 25. Behold, they are written in the La- 
mentations, we may infer that they had certain collections 
of this kind of composition. The author of the book of 
Samuel has preserved those which David composed on 
occasion of the death of Saul and Jonathan, of Abner and 
Absalom ; but we have no remains of the mournful elegy 
composed by Jeremiah upon the immature death of Josiah, 
the exemplary king of Judah. 



276 



PART IV. 



ON THE ANALYSIS OF SCRIPTURE. 



BOOK I.— ANALYSIS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT 



CHAPTER I. 



ON THE PENTATEUCH. 



The Pentateuch, by which title the first five books of 
Moses are distinguished, is a word of Greek original, 
HevTarevxos (Pentateuchos) from ttzvte (pente) five, and ra^o? 
(teuchos) a book or volume, which literally signifies the 
five instruments or books ; by the Jews it is termed 
Chometz, a word synonymous with Pentateuch, and also, 
more generally, the Law, or the Law of Moses, because 
it contains the ecclesiastical and political ordinances issued 
by God to the Israelites. The pentateuch forms, to this 
day, but one roll or volume in the Jewish manuscripts, 
being divided only into larger and smaller sections. This 
collective designation of the books of Genesis, Exodus, 
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, is of very consi- 
derable antiquity, though we have no certain information 
when it was first introduced. As, however, the names 
of these books are evidently derived from the Greek, and 
as the five books of Moses are expressly mentioned by 
Josephus, who wrote only a few years after our Saviour's 
ascension, we have every reason to believe that the ap- 
pellation of Pentateuch was prefixed to the Septuagint 
version by the Alexandrian translators. 



Section I.— On the Book of Genesis. 



The first book of the Pentateuch, which is called 
Genesis, (rENESIL,) derives its appellation from the title 



ON THE PENTATEUCH. 277 

it bears in the Greek Septuagint Version, BIBA02 TENE- 
LEOE, (Biblos Geneseos ;) which signifies the Book of the 
Generation or Production, because it commences with the 
history of the generation or production of all things. 

Different opinions have been entertained concerning 
the time when Moses wrote it ; (for it is indisputably hk 
production ;) but the most probable conjecture is that 
which places it after the departure of the Israelites from 
Egypt, and the promulgation of the law. It comprises 
the history of about 2369 years according to the vulgar 
computation of time, or of 3619 years according to the 
larger computation of Dr. Hales ; and may be divided 
into four parts, viz. : 

Part I. The Origin of the World, (ch. i., ii.) 

Part II. The History of the former World, (ch. iii. — 
vii.) 

Part III. The General History of Mankind after the 
Deluge, (ch. viii. — xi.) 

Part IV. The particular History of the Patriarchs, 
(ch. xii. — 1.) 



Section II.— On the Book of Exodus. 

The title of this book is derived from the Septuagint 
version, and is significant of the principal transaction 
which it records, namely, the ESOAOS (Exodos,) Exodus, 
or departure of the Israelites from Egypt. It comprises 
a history of the events that took place during the period 
of 145 years, from the year of the world 2369 to 2514 
inclusive, from the death of Joseph to the erection of the 
tabernacle. Though the time when iCwas written by 
Moses cannot be precisely determined, yet, since it is a 
history of matters of fact, it must have been written after 
the giving of the law and the erection of the tabernacle. 
This book shows the accomplishment of the divine pro- 
mises made to Abraham, of the increase of his posterity, 
and their departure from Egypt after suffering great af- 
fliction. It contains 

I. An Account of the oppression of the Israelites, and 
the transactions previously to their departure out of Egypt, 
(ch. i. — xi.) 

24 



278 ON THE PENTATEUCH. 

II. The Narrative of the Exodus, or Departure of the 
Israelites, (ch. xii., xiii.) 

III. Transactions subsequent to their Exodus, (ch. xiv. 
— xviii.) 

IV. The Promulgation of the Law on Mount Sinai, 
(ch. xix. — xl.) 

In ch. xxxii.— xxxiv. are related the idolatry of the Israelites, the break- 
ing of the two tables of the law, the divine chastisement of the Hebrews, 
and the renewal of the tables of the covenant. 



Section III. — On the Book of Leviticus. 

Leviticus, by the Septuagint styled AEYITIKON, (Le~ 
vitikon,) derives its name from the circumstance of its 
containing the Laws concerning the religion of the Israel- 
ites. It is cited as the production of Moses in several 
books of Scripture ; and is of great use in explaining 
many passages of the New Testament, especially the 
Epistle to the Hebrews, which wotdd otherwise be inex- 
plicable. The enactments it contains may be referred to 
the four following heads, viz. : 

I. The Laws concerning Sacrifices, in which the diffe- 
rent kinds of sacrifices are enumerated, together with their 
concomitant rites, (ch. i. — vii.) 

II. The Institution of the Priesthood, in which the con- 
secration of Aaron and his sons to the sacred office is re- 
lated, together with the punishment of Nadab and Abihu. 
(ch. viii. — x.) 

III. The Laws concerning Purifications both of the 
people and the priests, (ch. xi. — xxii.) 

IV. The Laws concerning the sacred Festivals, Vows, 
Things devoted, and Tithes. 

Chap. xxvi. contains various prophetic promises and threatenings, 
which have signally been fulfilled among the Jews. (Compare v. 22, 
with Numb. xxi. 6. 2 Kings ii. 24, and xvii. 25. with Ezek. v. 17.) The 
preservation of the Jews to this day as a distinct people is a living com- 
ment on v. 44. 



Section IV. — On the Book of Numbers. 

This fourth book of Moses was entitled APIOMOI, 
(Arithmoi,) and by the Latin translators it was termed 



ON THE PENTATEUCH. 279 

Numeri, Numbers, whence our English title is derived ; 
because it contains an account of the numbering of the 
children of Israel, (related in chapters i. — iii. and xxvi.) 
It appears from xxxvi. 13, to have been written by Moses, 
in the plains of Moab. Besides the numeration and mar- 
shalling of the Israelites for their journey, several laws in 
addition to those delivered in Exodus and Leviticus, and 
likewise several remarkable events, are recorded in this 
book. It contains a history of the Israelites, from the 
beginning of the second month of the second year after 
their departure from Egypt to the beginning of the 
eleventh month of the fortieth year of their journeyings : 
that is, a period of thirty-eight years and nine or ten 
months. (Compare Numb. i. 1, and xxxvi. 13, with 
Deut. i. 3.) Most of the transactions here recorded took 
place in the second and thirty-eighth years : " the dates 
of the facts related in the middle of the book cannot be 
precisely ascertained." This book may be divided into 
four parts ; viz. : 

Part I. The Census of the Israelites, and the mar- 
shalling of them into a regular camp, " each tribe by 
itself under its own captain or chief, distinguished by his 
own peculiar standard, and occupying an assigned place 
with reference to the tabernacle." (Numb, i., ii.) The 
sacred census of the Levites, the designation of them to 
the sacred office, and the appointment of them to various 
services in the tabernacle, are related in Numb. iii. 
and iv. 

Part II. The Institution of various Legal Ceremonies. 
(ch. v. — x.) 

Part III. The History of their Journey from Mount 
Sinai to the Land of Moab, which may be described and 
distinguished by their eight remarkable murmurings in 
the way ; every one of which was visited with severe 
chastisement, (ch. xi.— xxi.) 

Part IV. A History of the Transactions which took 
place in the plains of Moab. (ch. xxii . — xxxvi.) 



280 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 

Section V.— On the Book of Deutoronomy. 

This fifth book of Moses derives its name from the title 
AEYTEPONOMION, (Deuteronomion,) prefixed to it by the 
translators of the Septuagint version, which is a compound 
term, signifying the second law, or the law repeated j be- 
cause it contains a repetition of the law of God, given by 
Moses to the Israelites. From a comparison of Deut. i. 
5, with xxiv. 1, it appears to have been written by Moses 
in the plains of Moab, a short time before his death : and 
this circumstance will account for that affectionate ear- 
nestness with which he addresses the Israelites. The 
period of time comprised in this book is five lunar weeks, 
or, according to some chronologers, about two months, 
viz. : from the first day of the eleventh month of the 
fortieth year, after the exodus of Israel from Egypt, to 
the eleventh day of the twelfth month of the same year, 
A. m. 2553, b. c. 1451. This book comprises four parts; 
viz. : 

Part I. A Repetition of the History related in the 
preceding Books, (ch. i. — iv.) 

Part II. A Repetition of the Moral, Ceremonial, and 
Judicial Law. (ch. v. — xxvi.) 

Part III. The Confirmation of the Law. (ch. xxvii. — 

XXX.) 

Part IV. The Personal History of Moses, (ch. xxxi. — 
xxxiii.) 

The thirty-fourth chapter (which relates the death of Moses) has most 
probably been detached from the Book of Joshua : for Moses could not re- 
cord his own death. 



CHAPTER II. 



ON THE HISTOHICAL BOOKS. 



This division of the sacred writings comprises twelve 
books, viz. : from Joshua to Esther inclusive : the first 
seven of these books are, by the Jews, called the former 
prophets, probably because they treat of the more ancient 
periods of Jewish history, and because they are most 
justly supposed to be written by prophetical men. The 
events recorded in these books occupy a period of almost 



ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 281 

one thousand years, which commences at the death of 
Moses, and terminates with the great national reform 
efFected by Nehemiah, after the return of the Jews from 
the Babylonish captivity. 



Section I.— On the Book of Joshua. 

The book of Joshua, which in all the copies of the Old 
Testament immediately follows the Pentateuch, is thus 
denominated, because it contains a narration of the 
achievements of Joshua the son of Nun, who had been 
the minister of Moses, and succeeded him in the com- 
mand of the children of Israel. It has always been re- 
ceived by the Jews as a part of their canon of Scripture. 

This book of Joshua comprises the history of about 
seventeen years, or, according to some chronologers, of 
twenty-seven or thirty years : it relates, 

I. The History of the Occupation of Canaan by the 
Israelites, (ch. i. — xii.) 

II. The Division of the Conquered Land. (ch. xiii. — 
xxii.) 

III. The Assembling of the People, the Dying Address 
and Counsels of Joshua, his Death, and Burial, &c. (ch. 
xxiii., xxiv.) 



Section II. — On the Book of Judges. 

The book of Judges derives its name from its contain- 
ing the history of the Israelites, from the death of Joshua 
to the time of Eli, under the administration of thirteen 
Judges, and consequently before the establishment of the 
regal government. It is supposed to have been written 
by the prophet Samuel : in it are related, 

I. The State of the Israelites after the Death of Joshua, 
until they began to turn aside from serving the Lord, 
(ch. i. — iii.) 

II. The History of the Oppressions of the Israelites, 
and their Deliverances by the Judges, (ch. iv. — xvi.) 

III. An Account of the Introduction of Idolatry among 
the Israelites, and the consequent corruption of religion 

24* 



282 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 

and manners among them ; for which God gave them up 
into the hands of their enemies, (ch. xvii. — xxi.) 



Section m.— On the Book of Ruth. 

The book of Ruth is generally considered as an Ap- 
pendix to that of Judges, and an introduction to that of 
Samuel : it is therefore, with great propriety, placed be- 
tween the books of Judges and Samuel. It relates, with 
equal beauty and simplicity, the history of a Moabitish 
damsel, who renounced idolatry, and by marriage was 
ingrafted among the Israelites. David was descended 
from her. The adoption of Ruth, a heathen converted 
to Judaism, into the line of Christ, has generally been 
considered as a pre-intimation of the admission of the 
Gentiles into the church. A further design of this book 
is, to evince the care of Divine Providence over those 
who sincerely fear God, in. raising the pious Ruth from 
a state of the deepest adversity to that of the highest 
prosperity. 



Section IV.— On the two Books of Samuel. 

In the Jewish canon of Scripture these two books form 
but one, termed in Hebrew the Book of Samuel, probably 
because the greater part of the first book was written by 
that prophet, whose history and transactions it relates. 
According to the Talmudical writers, the first twenty-four 
chapters of the first book of Samuel were written by the 
prophet whose name they bear; and the remainder of that 
book, together with the whole of the second book, was 
commited to writing by the prophets Gad and Nathan, 
agreeably to the practice of the prophets, who wrote me- 
moirs of the transactions of their respective times. 

The first book of Samuel contains the history of the 
Jewish church and polity, from the birth of Samuel, 
during the judicature of Eli, to the death of Saul, the first 
king of Israel : a period of nearly eighty years, viz. : 
from the year of the world 2869 to 2949. It comprises, 



ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 283 

I. The Transactions under the Judicature of Eli. (ch. 
i. — iv.) 

II. The History of the Israelites during the Judicature 
of Samuel, (ch. v. — xiii.) 

III. The History of Saul and the transactions of his 
Reign, (ch. xiv. — xxxi.) 

The second book Of Samuel contains the history of 
David, the second king of Israel, during a period of nearly 
forty years, viz. : from the year of the world 2948 to 
2988 ; and, by recording the translation of the kingdom 
from the tribe of Benjamin to that of Judah, it relates the 
partial accomplishment of the prediction delivered in 
Gen. xlix. 10. This book consists of three principal 
divisions, relating the triumphs and the troubles of David, 
and his transactions subsequent to his recovery of the 
throne, whence he was driven for a short time by the re- 
bellion of his son Absalom. 

I. The Triumphs of David, (ch. i. — x.) 

II. The Troubles of David, and their cause, together 
with his repentance, and subsequent recovery of the di- 
vine favour, (ch. xi. — xxiv.) 

III. David's Restoration to his Throne, and subsequent 
transactions, (ch. xx. — xxiv.) 

The two books of Samuel are of very considerable im- 
portance for illustrating the book of Psalms, to which they 
may be considered as a key. 



Section V.— On the Two Books of Kings. 

The two books of Kings are closely connected with 
those of Samuel. The origin and gradual increase of the 
united kingdom of Israel, under Saul and his successor 
David, having been described in the latter, the books now 
under consideration relate its height of glory under So- 
lomon, its division into two kingdoms, under his son and 
successor Rehoboam, the causes of that division, and the 
consequent decline of the two kingdoms of Israel and 
Judah, until their final subversion ; the ten tribes being 
carried captive into Assyria by Shalmenezer, and Judah 
and Benjamin to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. In the 
Jewish canon these books constitute but one volume, 
termed Melakim, or Kings, having been divided at some 



284 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 

unknown period into two parts, for the convenience of read- 
ing. In the Septuagint and Vulgate copies they are term- 
ed the third and fourth book of Kings ; they are gene- 
rally ascribed to Ezra. 

The first book of Kings embraces a period of one hun- 
dred and twenty-six years, from the anointing of Solo- 
mon and his admission as a partner in the throne with 
David, a. m. 29S9, to the death of Jehoshaphat, a. m. 3115. 

The first book of Kings may be divided into two prin- 
cipal parts, containing, 1. The history of the undivided 
kingdom under Solomon ; and, 2. The history of the di- 
vided kingdom under Rehoboam and his successors, and 
Jeroboam and his successors. 

Part I. The History of Solomon's reign (ch. i. — x.) 
contains a narrative of 

1. The latter days of David; the inauguration of Solomon as his asso- 
ciate in the kingdom, and his designation to be his successor, (ch. i. ii. 
1—11.) 

2. The Reign of Solomon from the death of David to his dedication of 
the temple, (ii. 12—46, iii. — viii.) 

3. The Transactions daring the remainder of Solomon's reign, (ix. — xi.) 

Part II. The history of the two kingdoms of Judah 
and Israel, (ch. xi. — xxii.) 

1. The accession of Rehoboam, and the division of the two kingdoms. 
(ch. xi.) 

2. The reigns of Rehoboam ; king of Judah, and of Jeroboam I. king of 
Israel, (xii. — xiv.) 

3. The reigns of Abijam and Asa, kings of Judah, and the contemporary 
reigns of Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri, and the commencement of 
Ahab's reign, (xv, xvi.) 

4. The reign of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and of his contemporaries 
Ahab and Ahaziah, (in part,) during which the prophet Elisha flourished. 
(xvii. — xxii.) 

The second book of Kings continues the contemporary 
history of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, from 
the death of Jehoshaphat, a. m. 3115, to the destruction 
of the city and temple of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 
a. m. 3416, a period of three hundred years. The three 
last verses of the preceding book have been improperly 
disjoined from this. The history of the two kingdoms is 
interwoven in this book, which may be divided into two 
parts, viz. : 

Part I. The contemporary History of the Kingdoms 
of Israel and Judah, to the end of the former, (ch. i. — 
xvii.") 



ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 2g5 

Part II. The History of the decline and fall of the 
kingdom of Judah. (ch. xviii. — xxv.) 



Section VI. — On the Two Books of Chronicles. 

The Jews comprise the two books of Chronicles in one 
book, which they call Dibre Hajamin, that is, The Words 
of Days, probably from the circumstance of their being 
compiled out of diaries or annals, in which were recorded 
the various events related in these books. In the Septua- 
gint version they are termed HapaXsiwonevcov (Paraleipome- 
non,) or of Things omitted; because many things which 
were omitted in the former part of the sacred history are 
here not only supplied, but some narrations are also en- 
larged, while others are added. The appellation of Chron- 
icles was given to these books by Jerome, because they 
contain an abstract, in order of time, of the whole of the 
sacred history, to the time when they were written. 

These books were evidently compiled from others, which 
were written at different times, some before and others 
after the Babylonish captivity : the period of time con- 
tained in these books, is about 3468 years. They may be 
divided into four parts, viz. : 

Part I. Genealogical Tables from Adam to the time of 
Ezra. (1 Chron. i. — ix.) 

Part II. The Histories of Saul and David. (I Chron. 
ix. 35 — 44, x. — xxix.) 

Part III. The History of the United Kingdom of Is- 
rael and Judah under Solomon. (1 Chron. xxix. 23 — 30. 
2 Chron. i. — ix.) 

Part IV. The History of the Kingdom of Judah, from 
the secession of the ten tribes, under Jeroboam, to its ter- 
mination by Nebuchadnezzar. (2 Chron. x. — xxxvi.) 

As the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, relate 
the same histories, they should each be constantly read and 
collated together; not only for the purpose of obtaining 
a more comprehensive view of Jewish history, but also 
in order to illustrate from one book what may appear to 
be obscure in either of the others. 



286 0N THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 



Section VII. — On the Book of Ezra. 



The Books of Ezra and Nebemiah were anciently 
reckoned by the Jews as one volume, and were divided by 
them into the first and second books of Ezra. The same 
division is recognised by the Greek and Latin churches ; 
but the third book, assigned to Ezra, and received as ca- 
nonical by the Greek church, is the same, in substance, 
as the book which properly bears his name, but interpo- 
lated. And the fourth book, which has been attributed to 
him, is a manifest forgery, in which the marks of falsehood 
are plainly discernible, and which was never unanimously 
received as canonical either by the Greek or by the Latin 
church, although some of the fathers have cited it, and 
the Latin church has borrowed some words out of it. It 
is not now extant in Greek, and never was extant in He- 
brew. Ezra is generally admitted to have been the author 
of the book which bears his name : every page, indeed, of 
the book proves that the writer of it was personally pre- 
sent at the transactions which he has recorded. 

The book of Ezra harmonizes most strictly with the pro- 
phecies of Haggai and Zechariah,- which it materially elu- 
cidates. (Compare Ezra v. with Hagg. i. 12. and Zech. 
iii. iv.) It evinces the paternal care of the Almighty over 
his chosen people, and consists of two parts, viz. : 

I. A Narrative of events from the return of the Jews 
under Zerub babel to the rebuilding of the temple, (cb. i. 
— vi.) 

II. The arrival of Ezra at Jerusalem, and the Refor- 
mation made there by him. (vii. — x.) 

The zeal and piety of Ezra appear, in this book, in a 
most conspicuous point of view : his memory has always 
been held in the highest reverence by the Jews. 



Section VIII. — On the Book of Nehemiah. 

Some eminent fathers of the Christian church have as- 
cribed this book to Ezra ; but that Nehemiah, whose 
name it bears, and who was cup-bearer to Artaxerxes 
Longimanus, was the author of it, there cannot be any 
reasonable doubt: the whole of it being written in his 



ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 287 

name, and, what is very unusual when compared with the 
preceding sacred historians, being written in the first per- 
son. His book contains, 

I. An Account of Nehemiah's departure from Shushan, 
with a royal commission to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, 
and his first arrival there, (ch. i., ii. 1 — 11.) 

II. An Account of the building of the walls, notwith- 
standing the obstacles interposed by Sanballat. (ch. ii. 12 
—20, iii.— vii. 4. 

III. The first reformation accomplished by Nehemiah. 
(ch. vii. — xii.) 

IV. The second reformation accomplished by Nehe- 
miah on his second return to Jerusalem, and his correc- 
tion of the abuses which had crept in during his absence. 

( xiii ) 

The administration of this pious man and excellent 

governor lasted about thirty-six years, to the year of the 

world 3574, according to some cm*onologers, but Dr. Pri- 

deaux has, with more probability, fixed it to the year 3595. 

The Scripture history closes with the book of Nehemiah. 



Section IX. — On the Book of Esther. 

This book, which derives its name from the Jewish 
captive whose history it chiefly relates, is by the Jews 
termed Megilloth Esther., or the volume of Esther. The 
history it contains conies in between the sixth and seventh 
chapters of Ezra : its authenticity was questioned by some 
of the fathers, in consequence of the name of God being 
omitted throughout, but it has always been received as 
canonical by the Jews. The book consists of two parts, 
detailing, 

I. The promotion of Esther to the throne of Persia ; 
and the essential service rendered to the king by Mordecai, 
in detecting a plot against his life. (ch. i., ii.) 

II. The advancement of Haman, his designs against 
the Jews, and their frustration ; and the advancement of 
Mordecai. (ch. iii. — x.) 

In our copies, the book of Esther terminates with the 
third verse of the tenth chapter ; but in the Greek and 
Vulgate Bibles, there are ten more verses annexed to it, 



288 °N THE POETICAL BOOKS 

together with six additional chapters, which the Greek and 
Romish churches account to be canonical. As, however, 
they are not extant in Hebrew, they are expunged from the 
sacred canon by Protestants, and are supposed to have 
been compiled by some Hellenistic Jew. 



CHAPTER III. 



ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 



Though some of the Sacred Writings, which present 
themselves to our notice in the present chapter, are ante- 
rior in point of date to the Historical Books, yet they are 
usually classed by themselves under the title of the Poet- 
ical Books ; because they are almost wholly composed in 
Hebrew verse. This appellation is of considerable anti- 
quity. The Poetical Books are five in number, viz. : Job, 
Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Canticles, or Song 
of Solomon : in the Jewish canon of Scripture they are 
classed among the Hagiographa, or Holy Writings ; and 
in our Bibles they are placed between the Historical and 
Prophetical Books. 



Section I. — On the book of Job. 

This book has derived its title from the venerable patri 
arch J ob, whose prosperity, afflictions, and restoration from 
the deepest adversity, are here recorded, together with his 
exemplary and unequalled patience under all his calami- 
ties. Some critics have doubted, or affected to doubt, the 
existence of such a character as Job ; but that point is 
satisfactorily determined by the prophet Ezekiel (xiv. 14,) 
and the apostle James, (v. 11,) both of whom mention him 
as a real character. The length of his life places him in 
the patriarchal times: and Dr. Hales, besides other evi- 
dences, which cannot here be detailed, has rendered it 
highly probable that he lived about 184 years before the 
time of Abraham. He dwelt in Uz or Idumaea. 

Among the conflicting opinions which have been ad- 
vanced respecting the author of this book, the most pro- 



ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 289 

bable is that of Archbishop Magee, who supposes it to 
have been originally written by Job, and subsequently 
transcribed by Moses ; who having applied it to the use 
of the Jews, and given it the sanction of his authority, it 
thenceforth became enrolled among the sacred writings. 
It has been quoted by almost every Hebrew writer from 
the age of Moses to that of Malachi. In its form, this 
poem approximates to the Mekama, or philosophical dis- 
courses of the Arabian Poets. 

Nothing, perhaps, has contributed more to render the 
poem of Job obscure, than the common division into chap- 
ters and verses ; by which not only the unity of the gene- 
ral subject, but frequently that of a single paragraph, or 
clause, is broken. 

The poem may be divided into six parts ; viz. : The 
first of these contains the exordium or narrative part, 
which is written in prose ; (ch. i., ii. ;) the second comprises 
the first debate or dialogue of Job and his friends ; (hi. — 
xiv. ;) the third includes the second series of debate or 
controversy ; (xv. — xxi. ;) the fourth comprehends the 
third series of controversy ; (xxii. — xxxi. ;) in the fifth 
part Elihu sums up the argument ; (xxxii. — xxxvii. ;) and 
in the sixth part Jehovah determines the controversy, Job 
humbles himself, is accepted, and restored to health and 
prosperity, (xxxviii. — xlii.) 

Independently of the important instruction and benefit 
which may be derived from a devout perusal of the book 
of Job, this divine poem is of no small value, as transmit- 
ting to us a faithful delineation of the patriarchal doctrines 
of religion, and particularly the existence of a God, who 
is the rewarder of them that diligently seek him, and 
a day of future resurrection, judgment, and final retri- 
bution. 



Section II. — On the Book of Psalms. 

This book is entitled in the Hebrew Sepher Tehillim, 
that is, the Booh of Hymns or Praises; because the 
praises of God constitute their chief subject matter: and 
as they were set, not only to be sung with the voice, but 
also to be accompanied with musical instruments, the Sep- 
tuagint version designates them B</?Xo? ^Ya\ ( aw V} (Biblos Psal- 



290 ON THE POETICAL BOORS 

mon,) the Booh of Psalms, by which name they are cited 
in Luke xx. 42 ; and this appellation is retained in our 
Bibles. The right of the book of Psalms to a place in 
the sacred canon has never been disputed : they are fre- 
quently alluded to in the Old Testament, and are often 
cited by our Lord and his apostles as the work of the Holy 
Spirit They are generally termed the Psalms of David, 
that Hebrew monarch being their chief author. Many 
of them bear his name, and were composed on occasion 
of remarkable circumstances in his life, his dangers, his 
afflictions, and his deliverances. Many of them, however, 
are strictly prophetical of the Messiah, of whom David ; 
was an eminent type : but others were composed during 
the reign of Solomon, or during and subsequent to the 
captivity. We have no information when these divine 
poems were collected into a volume. The Psalms of 
Degrees, or Odes of Ascension, as Bishop Lowth terms 
them, are supposed to have derived this name from their 
being sung, when the people came up either to worship in 
Jerusalem, at the annual festivals, or perhaps from the 
Babylonish captivity. The word " Selah," which is found 
in many of the Psalms, appears to have been inserted in 
order to point out something worthy of most attentive 
observation. 

For a Table of those Psalms which are strictly prophet- 
ical of the Messiah, see pp. 102, 103, supra. 

The book of Psalms, being composed in Hebrew verse, 
must generally be studied according to the laws of Hebrew 
Poetry, which have been noticed in pp. 108 — 111 : and 
this the English reader will find little difficulty in accom- 
plishing, in our admirably faithful authorized version. At- 
tention to the following hints will also enable him to enter 
into their force and meaning. 

1. Investigate the Argument of each psalm. 

This is sometimes intimated in the prefixed title : but as these inscrip- 
tions are not always genuine, it will be preferable, in every case, to de- 
duce the argument from a diligent and attentive reading of the psalm it- 
self, and then to form our opinion concerning the correctness of the title, 
if there be any. 

2. With this view, examine the Historical Origin of the psalm, 
or the circumstances that led the sacred poet to compose it 

Much advantage and assistance may be derived from studying the psalma 
chronologically, and comparing them with the historical books of the 01<J 



ON TftE POETICAL BOOKS. 291 

Testament, particularly those which treat of the Israelites and Jews, from 
the origin of their monarchy to their return from the Babylonish captivity. 

3. Attend to the Structure of the psalms. 

The psalms, being principally designed for the national worship of the 
Jews, are adapted to choral singing : attention to this circumstance will 
enable us better to enter into their spirit and meaning. 

For a Table of the Psalms adapted to private reading 
or devotion, see the Appendix, No. IV. 



Section III.— On the Books of Proverbs. 

The book of Proverbs has always been ascribed to So- 
lomon, whose name it bears, though, from the frequent re- 
petition of the same sentences, as well as from some varia- 
tions in style which have been discovered, doubts have 
been entertained whether he really was the author of every 
maxim it comprises. As it is no where said that Solomon 
himself made a collection of proverbs and sentences, the 
general opinion is, that several persons made a collection 
of them: Hezekiah, among others, as mentioned in the 
twenty-fifth chapter : Agur, Isaiah, and Ezra, might have 
done the same. This book is frequently cited by the apos- 
tles : its scope is to instruct men in the deepest mysteries 
of true wisdom and understanding, the height and perfec- 
tion of which is, the true knowledge of the divine will, 
and the sincere fear of the Lord. (Prov. i. 2 — 7, ix. 10.) 
It may be divided into five parts, viz. : 

Part I. In the proem or exordium, containing the first 
nine chapters, the teacher gives his pupil a series of ad- 
monitions, directions, cautions, and excitements to the study 
of wisdom. 

Part II. extends from chapter x. to xxii. 16, and con- 
sists of what may be strictly and properly called proverbs, 
— namely, unconnected sentences, expressed with much 
neatness and simplicity. 

Part III. readies from chapter xxii. 17, to xxv. inclu- 
sive : in this part the tutor drops the sententious style, 
and addresses his pupil as present, to whom he gives 
renewed and connected admonitions to the study of wis- 
dom. 

The proverbs contained in 

Part IV. are supposed to have been selected from 



292 ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 

some larger collection of Solomon " by the men of Heze- 
kiah," — that is, by the prophets whom he employed to re- 
store the service and writings of the Jewish church. (2 
Chron. xxxi. 20, 21.) This part, like the second, consists 
of detached unconnected sentences, and extends from 
chapter xxv. to xxix. Some of the proverbs, which Solo- 
mon had introduced into the former part of the book, are 
here repeated. 

Part V. Comprises chapters xxx. and xxxi. In the 
former are included the wise observations and instructions 
delivered by Agur, the son Jakeh, to his pupils, Ithiel and 
Ucal. The thirty-first chapter contains the precepts 
which were given to Lemuel by his mother, who is sup- 
posed by some to have been a Jewish woman married to 
some neighbouring prince, and who appears to have been 
most ardently desirous to guard him against vice, to esta- 
blish him in the principles of justice, and to unite him to 
a wife of the best qualities. Of Agur we know nothing ; 
nor have any of the commentators offered so much as a 
plausible conjecture respecting him. 



Section TV.— On the Book of Ecclesiastes. 

The title of this book, in our Bibles, is derived from the 
Septuagint version, E^A^o-tarns-, (Ecclesiastes,) signifying a 
a preacher, or one who harangues a public congregation. 
In Hebrew it is termed, from the initial words, Dibre Co- 
heleth, " the Words of the Preacher ;" by whom may be 
intended, either the person assembling the people, or he 
who addresses them when convened. Although this book 
does not bear the name of Solomon, it is evident from 
several passages that he was the author of it. Compare 
ch. i. 12. \6, ii. 4 — 9, and xii. 9, 10. Its scope is ex- 
plicitly announced in ch. i. 2, and xii. 13, viz. : to de- 
monstrate the vanity of all earthly objects, and to draw 
off men from the pursuit of them, as an apparent good, to 
the fear of God, and communion with him, as to the 
highest and only permanent good in this life, and to show 
that men must seek for happiness beyond the grave. It 
consists of two parts ; viz. : 

Part I. The Vanity of all earthly conditions, occupa- 
tions, and pleasures, (ch. i. — vi. 9.) 



ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 293 

Part II. The Nature, Excellence, and Beneficial Effects 
of true Religion, (ch. vi. — xii. 7.) 
The Conclusion, (ch. xii. 8 — 14.) 



Section V.— On the Song of Solomon. 

This book has always been reputed to be the produc- 
tion of the Hebrew monarch. Concerning its structure, 
there is great difference of opinion among critics, whose 
various hypotheses are discussed in the author's larger 
work. The most probable opinion is that which refers it 
to the idyls of the Arabian Poets. Dr. John Mason Good 
makes them to be twelve in number ; viz. : 

UIUI 

idyl 1 containing chap. i. 1—8 

2 i. 9, ii. 7. 

3 - ii. 8—17. 

4 iii. 1—5. 

5 iii. 6, iv. 7. 

6 iv. 8, v. 1. 

7 • • • v. 2, vi. 10. 

8 Vi. 11—13. 

9 vii. 1—9. 

10 vii. 10, vii. 4 

11 • - viii. 5—7. 

12 viii. 8—14. 

This poem was composed on occasion of Solomon's 
marriage. That it is a mystical poem, or allegory, all 
sound interpreters are agreed ; though some expositors, 
who have not entered sufficiently into the spirit and 
meaning of Oriental poesy, have caused particular pas- 
sages to be considered as coarse and indelicate, which, in 
the original, are altogether the reverse ; while others 
have so confounded the literal and allegorical senses as 
to give neither, distinctly or completely. At the same 
time, they have applied the figures to such a variety of 
objects, as to leave the reader still to seek the right; 
and, by their minute dissection of the allegory, they have 
not only destroyed its consistency and beauty, but have 
also exposed the poem to the unmerited ridicule of pro- 
fane minds. Much, unquestionably, has been done, by 
later writers, towards elucidating the language and allu- 
sions of the Song of Songs by the aid of Oriental litera- 
ture and manners : but, after all the labours of learned 
2-5* 



294 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHETS, 

men, there will, perhaps, be found many expressions which 
are very difficult to us, both as to the literal meaning, 
and the spiritual instruction intended to be conveyed by 
them ; and some descriptions must not be judged by 
modern notions of delicacy. But the grand outlines, 
soberly interpreted, in the obvious meaning of the allegory, 
so accord with the affections and experience of the sin- 
cere Christian, " that he will hardly ever read and medi- 
tate upon them, in a spirit of humble devotion, without 
feeling a conviction that no other poem, of the same kind, 
extant in the world, could, without most manifest violence, 
be so explained as to describe the state of his heart at 
different times, and to excite admiring, adoring, grateful 
love to God our Saviour, as this does." (Scott's Pref. to 
Sol. Song.) 



CHAPTER IV. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHETS AND THEIR WRITINGS. 

We now enter on the fourth, or prophetical part of the 
Old Testament, according to the division which is gene- 
rally adopted, but which (as we have already seen in 
page 79, supra,) forms the second division, according to 
the Jewish classification of the sacred volume. This 
portion of the Scriptures is termed prophetical, because it 
chiefly consists of predictions of future events ; though 
many historical and doctrinal passages are interspersed 
through the writings of the Prophets, as there also are 
many predictions of future events scattered through those 
books, which are more strictly historical. The authors 
of these books are, by way of eminence, termed Prophets, 
that is, divinely inspired persons, who were raised up 
among the Israelites to be the ministers of God's dispen- 
sations. The prophets are usually reckoned among 
sacred persons. Seep. 230, 231, supra; and some ob- 
servations on the interpretation of Scripture Prophecy, 
especially the predictions relative to the Messiah, will 
be found in pp. 144 — 148, supra. 

The prophetical books are sixteen in number, (the La- 
mentations of Jeremiah being usually considered as an 



AND THEIR WRITINGS. 295 

appendix to his predictions,) and, in all modern editions 
of the Bible, they are usually divided into two classes ; 
viz. : 1. The Greater Prophets, comprising the waitings 
of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; who have been 
thus designated from the size of their books, not because 
they possessed greater authority than the others. 2. The 
Minor Prophets, comprising the writings of Hosea, Joel, 
Amos, Jonah, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze- 
phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. These books 
were anciently written in one volume, by the Jews, lest 
any of them should be lost ; some of their writings being 
very short. 

Much of the obscurity which hangs over the prophetic 
writings may be removed by perusing them in the order 
of time in which they were probably written ; and though 
the precise time in which some of the prophets delivered 
their predictions, cannot, perhaps, be traced in every in- 
stance, yet the following arrangement of the prophets in 
their supposed order of time, (according to the tables of 
Blair, Archbishop Newcome, and other eminent critics, 
with a few variations,) will, we think, be found suffi- 
ciently correct for the right understanding of their pre- 
dictions. 

According to the annexed table, the times when the pro- 
phets flourished maybe referred to three periods ; viz. : 1. 
Before the Babylonian Captivity ; — 2. Near to and during 
that event ; — and, 3. After the return of the Jews from 
Babylon. And if, in these three periods, we parallel the 
prophetical writings with the historical books written 
during the same times, they will materially illustrate 
each other. 



296 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHETS, &c. 



Jonah 


Before 
Christ. 




Jehu and Jehoahaz, ac- 
cording to BishopLloyd; 
but Joash and Jeroboam 
the Second, according 
to Blair. 


Between 856 
and 784. 


Amos 


Between 810 
and 795. 


Uzziah, ch. I. 1. 


Jeroboam the Second, 
ch. i. !. 


Hosea 


Between 810 
and 725. 


Uzziah,Jotham,Ahaz,the 
third year of Hezekiah. 


Jeroboam the Second, 
ch. i. 1. 


Isaiah 


Between 810 
and 749. 


Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and 
Hezekiah, chap. i. 1, 
and perhaps Manasseh. 




Joel 


Between 810 
and 660, or 
later, 


Uzziah, or possibly Ma- 
nasseh. 




Micah 


Between '758 
and 609. 


Jotham, Ahaz, and He- 
zekiah, ch. i. 1. 


Pekan ana Hosea. 


Nahum 


Eetween 720 
and 693 


Probablytowards theclose 
of Hezekiah's reign. 




Zephaniah 


Between 640 
and 609. 


In the reign of Jtwiah 
ch. i. I. 


Jeremiah 


Between 623 
and 586. 


In the thirteenth year of 
Josiah. 


Habakkuk 


Between 612 
and 59S. 


Probably in the reign of 
Jehoiakim. 


Daniel 


Between 606 
and 534. 


During all the captivity. 


Obadiah 


Between 588 
and 5S3. 


Between the taking of Je 
r usal em byNebuchadnez- 
zar, and the destruction 
of the Edomites by him. 


Ezekiel 


Between 595 
and 536. 


During part of the 
captivity. 


Haggai 


About 520 
to 518. 


After the return from 
Babylon. 


Zechariah 


From 520 to 
518,or longer. 




Malachi 


Between 436 
and 397. 



ON THE PROPHETS. 397 

CHAPTER V. 

ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 

Section I. — On the Book of the Prophet Jonah. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 856 — 784. 

This Book is by the Hebrews called Sepher Jonari, or 
the Book of Jonah, from its author Jonah, the son of 
Amittai, who was a native of Gath-Hepher in Galilee. 
(Jon. i. 1, with Josh. xix. 13.) He is supposed to have 
prophesied to the ten tribes, according to Bishop Lloyd, 
toward the close of Jehu's reign, or in the beginning of 
Jehoahaz's reign; though other chronologers place him 
under Joash and Jeroboam II., about forty years later. 
The scope of this book is to show, by the very striking 
example of the Ninevites, the divine forbearance and long 
suffering towards sinners who are spared on their sincere 
repentance. 

The book of Jonah consists of two parts ; viz. : 

Part I. His first mission to Nineveh, and his attempt 
to flee to Tarshish, and its frustration, together with his 
delivery from the stomach of the great fish which had 
swallowed him. (eh. i., ii.) 

Part II. His second mission, and its happy result to 
the Ninevites, who, in consequence of the prophet's 
preaching, repented in dust and ashes ; (iii. ;) and the dis- 
content of Jonah, who, dreading to be thought a false 
prophet, repined at the divine mercy in sparing the Nine- 
vites, whose destruction he seems to have expected, (iv.) 

The time of Jonah's continuance in the belly of the 
fish was a type of our Lord's continuance in the grave. 
(Luke xi. 30.) 



Section II.— On the Book of the Prophet Amos. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 810 — 785. 

Amos, the third of the minor prophets, is supposed to 
have been a native of Tekoah, a small town in the king- 
dom of Judah, situate about four leagues to the south of 
Jerusalem. He prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, 



298 ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED 

king of Judah, and of Jeroboam, son of Jo ash. His pro- 
phecy consists of four parts, viz. : 

Part I. The Judgments of God denounced against the 
neighbouring Gentile nations ; as 

The Syrians, (ch. i. 1—5,) which see fulfilled in 2 Kings xvi. 9 ; the 
Philistines, (i. 6—8,) recorded as accomplished in 2 Kings xviii. 8, Jer. 
xlvii. 1. 5, and 2 Chron. xxvi. 6 ; the Tynans, (i. 9, 10,) the Edomites, (L 
11, 12. compared with Jer. xxvi. 9. 21, xxvii. 3. 6, and 1 Mace. v. 3.) the 
Ammonites, (13 — 15,) and the Moabites. (ii. 1 — 3.) 

Part II. The Divine Judgments denounced against 
Judah and Israel, (ch. ii. 4, ix. 1 — 10.) 

Part III. Consolatory Promises to the Church, de- 
scribing her Restoration by the Messiah, (ch. ix. 11 — 15.) 



Section in.— On the Book of the Prophet Hosea. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 810 — 725. 

Hosea, of whose family we have no certain information, 
prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, and 
Ahaz, and in the third year of Hezekiah, kings of Judah, 
and during the reign of Jeroboam II. king of Israel ; and 
it is most probable that he was an Israelite, who lived in 
the kingdom of Samaria, or of the ten tribes, as his pre- 
dictions are chiefly directed against their wickedness and 
idolatry. But, with the severest denunciations of ven- 
geance, he blends promises of mercy. The prophecy of 
Hosea contains fourteen chapters, which may be divided 
into five sections, or discourses, exclusive of the title in 
ch. i. 1, viz. : 

Discourse I. Under the figure of the supposed infide- 
lity of the prophet's wife is represented the spiritual infide- 
lity of the Israelites, a remnant of whom, it is promised, 
shall be saved (ch. i. 2 — 11,) and they are exhorted to 
forsake idolatry, (ii. 1 — 11.) Promises are then intro- 
duced, on the general conversion of the twelve tribes to 
Christianity ; and the gracious purposes of Jehovah 
toward the ten tribes, or the kingdom of Israel in parti- 
cular, are represented under the figure of the prophet 
taking back his wife on her amendment, (ii. 11—23, iii.) 

Discourse II. A reproof of the bloodshed and idolatry 
of the Israelites, against which the inhabitants of Judah 



BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVTTV. 299 

are exhorted to take warning : interspersed with promises 
of pardon, (ch. iv. — vi. 1 — 3.) 

Discourse III. The prophet's exhortations to repent- 
ance proving ineffectual, God complains by him of their 
obstinate iniquity and idolatry, (ch. vi. 4 — 11, vii. 1 — 
10,) and denounces that Israel will be carried into capti- 
vity into Assyria by Sennacherib, notwithstanding their 
reliance on Egypt for assistance, (vii. 11 — 16, viii.) 

Discourse IV. The captivity and dispersion of Israel 
is further threatened ; (ch. ix., x.) the Israelites are re- 
proved for their idolatry, yet they shall not be utterly de- 
stroyed, and their return to their own country is foretold, 
(xi.) Renewed denunciations are made on account of 
their idolatry, (xii., xiii. 1 — 8.) 

Discourse V. After a terrible denunciation of divine 
punishment, intermixed with promises of restoration from 
captivity, (ch. xiii. 9 — 16,) the prophet exhorts the Is- 
raelites to repentance, and furnishes them with a beauti- 
ful form of prayer adapted to their situation ; (xiv. 1 — 3 ;) 
and foretells their reformation from idolatry, together with 
the subsequent restoration of all the tribes from their dis- 
persed state, and their conversion to the Gospel. (4 — 9.) 



Section IV.— On the Book of the Prophet Isaiah. 

BEFOKE CHRIST, 810 — 749. 

Though fifth in the order of time, the writings of the 
prophet Isaiah are placed first in Order of the prophetical 
books, principally on account of the sublimity and impor- 
tance of his predictions, and partly also because the book, 
which bears his name, is larger than all the twelve minjor 
prophets put together. 

Concerning his family and descent, nothing certain has 
been recorded, except what he himself tells us, (i. 1,) viz.: 
that he was the son of Amos, and discharged the prophetic 
office* in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, 
kings of Judah. Concerning the time or manner of his 
death nothing certain is known. Besides the predictions 
ascribed to him, it appears from 1 Chron. xxvi. 22, that 
Isaiah wrote an account of the Acts of Uzziah, king of 



3(H) ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED 

Judah : this has long since perished. Of all the prophets, 
none have so clearly predicted the circumstances relative to 
the advent, sufferings, atoning death, and resurrection of 
the Messiah, as Isaiah ; who has, from this circumstance, 
been styled the Evangelical Prophet. His predictions (yet 
unfulfilled) of the ultimate triumph and extension of the 
Redeemer's kingdom are unrivalled for the splendour of 
their imagery, and the beauty and sublimity of their 
language. 

Part I. contains a general Description of the State 
and Condition of the Jews, in the several periods of their 
history ; the Promulgation and success of the Gospel, and 
the coming of Messiah to judgment, (ch. i. — v.) The pre- 
dictions in this section were delivered during the reign of 
Uzziah king of Judah. 

Part II. comprises the predictions delivered in the 
reigns of Jotham and Ahaz. (ch. vi. — xii.) 

Part III. contains various predictions against the Ba- 
bylonians, Assyrians, Philistines, and other nations with 
whom the Jews had any intercourse, (ch. xiii. — xxiv.) 

Part IV. contains a Prophecy of the great calamities 
that should befall the people of God, His merciful preser- 
vation of a remnant of them, and of their restoration to 
their country, of their conversion to the Gospel, and the 
destruction of x4ntichrist. (ch. xxiv. — xxxiii.) 

Part V. comprises the historical part of the prophecj 7 
of Isaiah, (ch. xxxvi. — xxxix.) 

Part VI. comprises a series of prophecies, delivered 
in all probability, toward the close of Hezekiah's reign, 
(ch. xl. — Ixvi.) 

This portion of Isaiah's predictions constitutes the most 
elegant part of the sacred writings of the Old Testament. 
The chief subject is the restoration of the church, which 
is pursued with the greatest regularity. But, as the sub- 
ject of this very beautiful series of prophecies is chiefly 
of the consolatory kind, they are introduced with a pro- 
mise of the restoration of the kingdom, and the return of 
the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, through the mer- 
ciful interposition of God. At the same time this redemp- 
tion from Babylon is employed as an image to shadow out 
a redemption of an infinitely higher and more important 
nature. The prophet connects these two events together, 



BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 3Q| 

scarcely ever treating of the former without throwing in 
some intimations of the latter ; and sometimes he is so 
fully possessed with the glories of the future more remote 
kingdom of the Messiah, that he seems to leave the im- 
mediate subject of his commission almost out of the 
question. / 



Section V.— On the Book of the Prophet Joel. 
before christ, 810 — 660, or later. 

Concerning the family, condition, and pursuits ot this 
prophet, nothing certain is known ; hut from internal evi- 
dence, we are authorized to place him in the reign of Uz- 
ziah. Consequently he was contemporary with Amos and 
Hosea, if indeed he did not prophesy before Amos. His 
book consists of three chapters, which may be divided into 
three discourses or parts, viz. 

Part I. is an exhortation, both to the priests and to 
the people, to repent, by reason of the famine brought 
upon them by the palmer-worm, &c. in consequence of 
their sins ; (ch. i. 1 — 20. ;) and is followed by a denunci- 
ation of still greater calamities, if they continued impeni 
tent. (ii. 1 — 11.) 

Part II. An Exhortation to keep a public and solemn 
fast, (ch. ii. 12 — 17,) with a promise of removing the cala- 
mities of the Jews on their repentance (18 — 26,) and of 
the Effusion of the Holy Spirit. (27 — 32. Compare Acts 
ii. 17—21.) 

Part III. predicts the general Conversion and return 
of the Jews, and the destruction of their opponents, to- 
gether with the glorious state of the church that is to fol- 
low, (ch. iii.) 



Section VI. — On the Book of the Prophet Micah. 
before christ, 758—699. 

Micah, the third of the minor prophets, was a native of 
Morasthi, a small town in the southern part of the territory 

26 



302 ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED 

of Judah ; and, as we learn from the commencement of 
his predictions, prophesied in the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, 
and Hezekiah, kings of that country ; consequently he 
was contemporary with Isaiah, Joel, Hosea, and Amos. 
His book contains seven chapters, forming three parts ; 
viz.: 

Introduction, or title, (i. l.j 

Part I. comprises the prophecies delivered in the reign 
of Jotham king of Judah (with whom Pekah king of Israel 
was contemporary,) in which the divine judgments are de- 
nounced against both Israel and Judah for their sins. (ch. 
i. 2—16.) 

Part II. contains the predictions delivered in the reigns 
of Ahaz king of Judah (with whom his son Hezekiah was 
associated in the government during the latter part of his 
life,) and of Pekah king of Israel, who was also contem- 
porary with him. (ii. — iv. 8.) 

Part III. includes the prophecies delivered by Micah 
during the reign of Hezekiah king of Judah, the first six 
years of whose government were contemporary with the 
greater part of the reign of Hoshea, the last king of Israel, 
(iv. 9—13, v.— vii.) 

Chap. v. contains an eminent prediction of the place 
of the Messiah's Nativity, as well as of his kingdom and 
conquests. 



Section VII.— On the Book of the Prophet Nahum. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 720—698. 

Nahum, a native of Elkosh, or Elkosha, a village in 
Galilee, is generally supposed to have lived between the 
Assyrian and Babylonian captivities, about 715 years be- 
fore the Christian sera. The repentance of the Ninevites, 
in consequence of Jonah's preaching, being of short dura- 
tion, Nahum was commissioned to denounce the final and 
inevitable ruin of Nineveh and the Assyrian empire by 
the Chaldeans, and to comfort his countrymen in the cer- 
tainty of their destruction 

His prophecy is one entire poem, which, opening with 
a sublime description of the justice and power of God 
tempered with long-suffering, (ch. i. 1 — 8,) foretells the 



NEAR TO AND DURING THE CAPTIVITY. 3()3 

destruction of Sennacherib's forces, and the subversion of 
the Assyrian empire, (9 — 12,) together with the deliver- 
ance of Hezekiah and the death of Sennacherib. (13 — 15.) 
The destruction of Nineveh is then predicted, and described 
with singular minuteness, (ii., iii.) 



Section VIII. — On the Book of the Prophet Zephanian. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 640 — 609 

This prophet, who was " the son of Cushi, the son of 
Gedaliah, the son of Amariah, the son of Hizkiah," (i. 1,) 
is supposed to have discharged the prophetic office before 
the eighteenth year of Josiah ; that is, before this prince 
had reformed the abusesand corruptions of his dominions. 
His prophecy, which consists of three chapters, may be 
divided into four sections ; viz. : 

Sect. I. A denunciation against Judah for their idola- 
try, (ch. 1.) 

Sect. 11. Repentance the only means to avert the 
divine vengeance, (ch. ii. 1 — 3.) 

Sect. III. Prophecies against the Philistines, (ch. ii. 
4 — 7,) Moabites and Ammonites, (8 — 11,) Ethiopia 
(12,) and Nineveh. (13—15.) In 

Sect. IV. The captivity of the Jews by the Babylo- 
nians is foretold, (ch. iii. 1 — 7.) together with their future 
restoration and the ultimate prosperous state of the church. 



CHAPTER VI. 

OF THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED NEAR TO AND DURING THE BABYLONIAN 
CAPTIVITY. 

Section I.- -On the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 628 — 586. 

The prophet Jeremiah was of the sacerdotal race, being 
(as he himself records) one of the priests that dwelt at 
Anathoth, (i. I,) in the land of Benjamin, a city appro- 



304 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED xNEAR TO AM) 

priated out of that tribe to the use of the priests, the sons 
of Aaron, (Josh. xxi. 18,) and situate, as we learn from 
Jerome, about three Roman miles north of Jerusalem. 
He appears to have been very young when called to the 
prophetic office, in the discharge of which he received 
much ill treatment from the Jews : he prophesied about 
forty-two years, and followed the remnant of the Jews on 
their retiring into Egypt, where he is said to have been 
put to death by his profligate countrymen. His predic- 
tions, which are levelled against the crimes of the Jews, 
are not arranged in the chronological order in which they 
were originally delivered. The cause of their transposi- 
tion it is now impossible to ascertain. The late Rev. 
Dr. Blayney, to whom we are indebted for a learned 
version of, and commentary on, the writings of this pro- 
phet, has endeavoured, with great judgment, to restore 
their proper order by transposing the chapters, wherever 
it appeared to be necessary. According to his arrange- 
ment, the predictions of Jeremiah aie to be placed in the 
following order, viz. : 

Section. I. The prophecies delivered in the reign of 
Josiah, containing chapters i. — xii. inclusive. 

Section II. The prophecies delivered in the reign of 
Jehoiakim, comprising chapters xiii. — xx., xxii., xxiii., 
xxxv., xxxvi., xlv. — xlviii., and xlix. I — 33. 

Section III. The prophecies delivered in the reign of 
Zedekiah, including chapters xxi., xxiv., xxvii. — xxxiv., 
xxxvii. — xxxix. xlix. 34—39, and 1., li. 

Section IV. The prophecies delivered under the go- 
vernment of Gedaliah, from the taking of Jerusalem to 
the retreat of the people into Egypt, and the prophecies 
of Jeremiah delivered to the Jews in that country ; com- 
prehending chapters xl. — xliv. inclusive. 

In ch. xxiii. 5, 6, is foretold the mediatorial kingdom 
of the Messiah, who is called the Lord our Righteous- 
ness. Again, in Jer. xxxi. 31 — 36, and xxxiii. 8, the 
efficacy of Christ's atonement, the spiritual character of 
the new covenant, and the inward efficacy of the Gospel, 
are most clearly and emphatically described. Compare 
Saint Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews, ch. viii. 8 — 13, and 
x. 16, et seq. 



DURING THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY 3Q5 



Section II. — On the Lamentations of Jeremiah. 

That Jeremiah was the author of the Elegies or Lamen- 
tations which bear his name is evident, not only 
from a very ancient and almost uninterrupted tradition, 
but also from the argument and style of the book, which 
corresponds exactly with those of his prophecies. This 
book consists of five chapters, forming as many pathetic 
elegies ; in the four first of which the prophet bewails the 
various calamities of his country ; the fifth elegy is an 
epilogue to the four preceding. Dr. Blayney considers it 
as a memorial representing, in the name of the whole 
body of Jewish exiles, the numerous calamities under 
which they groaned ; and humbly supplicating God to 
commiserate their wretchedness, and to restore them to 
his favour, and to their ancient prosperity. 



Section III.— On the Book of the Prophet Habakkuk. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 612—598. 

Concerning this prophet we have no certain informa- 
tion ; he exercised the prophetic office, most probably, in 
the reign of Jehoiakim, and consequently was contempo- 
rary with Jeremiah. His book consists of two parts. In 

Part I. which is in the form of a dialogue between 
God and the prophet, the Babylonish captivity is an- 
nounced ; with a promise, however, of deliverance, and 
the ultimate destruction of the Babylonian empire. 

Part II. contains the prayer or psalm of Habakkuk, 
in which he implores God to hasten the deliverance of his 
people, (ii.) 



Section IV. — On the Book of the Prophet Daniel. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 606 — 534. 

Daniel, the fourth of the greater prophets, if not of royal 
birth, (as the Jews affirm,) was of noble descent, and was 
carried captive to Babylon at an early age, in the fourth 
26* 



306 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED NEAR TO AND 

year of Jehoiachin king of Judah, in the year 606 before 
the Christian aera, and seven years before the deportation 
of Ezekiel. Having been instructed in the language and 
literature of the Chaldaeans, he afterwards held a very 
distinguished office in the Babylonian empire. (Dan. i. 
1 — 4.) He was contemporary with Ezekiel, who men- 
tions his extraordinary piety and wisdom, (Ezek. xiv. 14, 
20,) and the latter, even at that time, seems to have be- 
come proverbial. (Ezek. xxviii. 3.) Daniel lived in 
great credit with the Babylonian monarchs ; and his un- 
common merit procured him the same regard from Darius 
and Cyrus, the two first sovereigns of Persia. He lived 
throughout the captivity, but it does not appear that he 
returned to his own country when Cyrus permitted the 
Jews to revisit their native land. The time of his death is 
not certainly known. Although the name of Daniel is not 
prefixed to his book, the many passages in which he speaks 
in the first person sufficiently prove that he was the author. 
His writings may be divided into two parts ; viz. : 

Part I. comprises the historical portion of this book : 
it contains a narrative of the circumstances that led to 
Daniel's elevation, (ch. i. — vi.) 

Part. II. comprises various prophecies and visions of 
things future, until the advent and death of the Messiah, 
and the ultimate conversion of the Jews and Gentiles to 
the faith of the Gospel, (ch. vii. — xii.) 

This is an amazing series of prophecy, extending through 
many successive ages from the first establishment of the Per- 
sian empire, upwards of 530 years before Christ, to the ge- 
neral resurrection ! " What a proof does it afford of a Divine 
Providence, and of a Divine Revelation! for who could 
thus declare the things that shall be, with their times and 
seasons, but He only who hath them in his power : whose 
dominion is over all, and whose kingdom endureth from 
generation to generation !" 



Section V.— On the Book of the Prophet Obadiah. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 588 — 583. 

The time when this prophet flourished is uncertain : 
rchbishop Newcome places it, with great probability, 



DURING THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 397 

between the taking of Jerusalem (which happened in the 
year 587 before Christ) and the destruction of Idumaea, 
by Nebuchadnezzar, which took place a very few years 
after. Consequently he was partly contemporary with Jere- 
miah, one of whose predictions includes the greater part 
of Obadiah's book. (Compare Obad. 1 — 9, with Jer. 
xlix. 14, 15, 16. 7. 9, 10.) His writings, which consist of 
only one chapter, unfold a very interesting scene of 
prophecy, in two parts ; viz. : 

Part I. is minatory, and denounces the destruction of 
Edom for their pride and carnal security, (1 — 9,) and for 
their cruel insults and enmity to the Jews, after the cap- 
ture of their city. (10 — 16.) 

Part II. is consolatory, and foretells the restoration of 
the Jews, (17,) their victory over their enemies, and their 
nourishing state in consequence. (18 — 21.) 



Section VI. — On the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 595 — 536. 

Ezekiel, wnose name imports the strength of God, was 
the son of Buzi, of the sacerdotal race, and one of the cap- 
tives carried by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon with Jehoiachin 
king of Judah : it does not appear that he had prophesied 
before he came into Mesopotamia. The principal scene 
of his predictions was some place on the river Chebar, 
which flows into the Euphrates about two hundred miles 
to the north of Babylon, where the prophet resided ; though 
he was, occasionally, conveyed in vision to Jerusalem. 
He commenced his prophetic ministry in the thirtieth year 
of his age, according to general accounts ; or rather, as 
Calmet thinks, in the thirtieth year after the covenant was 
renewed with God, in the reign of Josiah, which answers 
to the fifth year of Ezekiel's and Jehoiachin's captivity, 
(Ezek. i. 1, xl. 1,) the sera whence he dates his predictions; 
and he continued to prophesy about twenty or twenty-one 
years. The events of his life, after his call to the pro- 
phetic office, are interwoven with the detail which he has 
himself given of his predictions : but the mariner of its 
termination is no where ascertained. His prophecies have 
always been acknowledged to be canonical, nor was it ever 



308 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED AFTER THE 

disputed that he was their author : they form, in our Bibles, 
forty-eight chapters, and, as he is extremely punctual in 
dating them, we have little or no difficulty in arranging 
them in chronological order. They may be divided into 
four parts, viz. : 

Part I. EzekiePs call to the Prophetic office, (ch. i. 1, 
to the first part of verse 28,) his commission, instructions, 
and encouragements for executing it. (i. 28, latter clause, 
ii., iii. 1—21.) 

Part II. Denunciations against the Jewish People, 
(ch. iii. 22 — 27, iv. — xxiv.) 

Part III. comprises Ezekiel's Prophecies against 
various neighbouring nations, enemies to the Jews. (ch. 
xxv. — xxxii.) 

Part IV. contains a series of exhortations and conso- 
latory promises to the Jews, of future deliverance under 
Cyrus, but principally of their final restoration and con- 
version under the kingdom of Messiah, (ch. xxxiii. — 
xlvi.) 



CHAPTER VII. 

OF THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED AFTER THE RETURN OF THE JEWS FROM 
BABYLON. 

Section I. — On the Book of the Prophet Haggai. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 520—518. 

Nothing is certainly known concerning the tribe or 
birth-place of Haggai, the tenth in order of the minor 
prophets, but the first of the three who were commission- 
ed to make known the divine will to the Jews after their 
return from captivity. The Jews having for fourteen 
years discontinued the rebuilding of the temple, this pro- 
phet was commissioned to encourage them in their work, 
in consequence of the edict issued by Cyrus in their 
favour. Accordingly the work was resumed, and com- 
pleted in a few years. His prophecy comprises three dis- 
tinct prophecies or discourses ; viz. : 

Discourse I. contains a severe reproof of the people, especially of their 
governor and high-priest, for their delay in rebuilding the temple, which 
neglect was the cause of the unfruitful seasons, and other marks of the 



RETURN OF THE JEWS FROM BABYLON. 3Q9 

divine displeasure, with which they had been visited, (i. 1—11.) The 
obedience of the governors and people to the prophet's message is then 
related. (12—15.) 

Discourse II. The prophet comforts the aged men, who, when young, 
had beheld the splendour of the first temple, and now wept for the dimi- 
nished magnificence of the second temple, by foretelling that its glory 
should be greater than that of the first, (ii. 1 — 2.) This prediction waa 
accomplished by Jesus Christ honouring it with his presence and preach- 
ing. Haggai then predicts a fruitful harvest, as a reward for carrying on 
thebuildrhg. (10—19.) 

Discourse IIL The prophet foretells the setting up of Messiah's kingdom 
under the name of Zerubbabel. (ii. 20—23.) 



Section II.— On the Book of the Prophet Zechariah. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 520 — 518. 

Although the names of Zechariah's father and grand- 
father are specified, (Zech. i. 1,) it is not known from, 
what tribe or family this prophet was descended, nor 
where he was born ; but that he was one of the captives 
who returned to Jerusalem in consequence of the decree 
of Cyrus, is unquestionable. As he opened his prophetic 
commission in the eighth month of the second year of 
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, that is, about the year 520 
before the Christian sera, it is evident that he was con- 
temporary with Haggai, and his authority was equally 
effectual in promoting the building of the temple. 

The propliecy of Zechariah consists of two parts ; viz. : 

Part I. concerns the events which were then taking 
place, viz. : the restoration of the temple, interspersing pre- 
dictions relative to the advent of the Messiah, (ch. i. — vi.) 
These predictions were delivered in the second year of 
the reign of Darius, king of Persia. 

Part II. comprises prophecies relative to more remote 
events, particularly the coming of Jesus Christ, and the 
war of the Romans against the Jews. (vii. — xiv.) These 
prophecies were announced in the fourth year of Darius's 
reign. 



Section HI.— On the Book of the Prophet Malachi. 

BEFORE CHRIST, 436 — 397. 

Malachi, the last of the minor prophets, delivered his 
predictions while Nehemiah was governor of Judsea 



310 0N THE APOCRYPHA. 

more particularly after his second coming from the Per- 
sian court : and he appears to have contributed the weight 
of his exhortations to the restoration of the Jewish polity, 
and the final reform established by that pious and excel- 
lent governor. The people having relapsed into irreligion, 
the prophet was commissioned to reprove both priests and 
people. His writings, which consist of four chapters 
comprise two prophetic discourses ; viz. : 

Discourse I. reproves the Jews for their irreverence to God, their bene 
factor, and denounces divine judgments against them. (ch. i., ii.) 

Discourse II. foretells the coming of Christ, and his harbinger, John the 
Baptist, to purify the sons of Levi, the priests, and to smite the land 'witfr 
a curse, unless they all repented, (iii., iv.) 



CHAPTER VIII. 

ON THE APOCRYPHA. 

Besides the Scriptures of the Old Testament, which 
are universally acknowledged to be genuine and inspired 
writings, both by the Jewish and Christian churches, 
there are several other writings, partly historical, partly 
ethical, and partly poetical, which are usually printed at 
the end of the Old Testament in the larger editions of the 
English Bible, under the appellation of the "apocrypha;" 
that is, books not admitted into the sacred canon, being 
either spurious, or at least not acknowledged to be divine. 
These books are deservedly rejected by all Protestants 
from the canon of Scripture, because they never were re- 
cognised as canonical by the Jewish or Christian churches; 
because they contain many things which are fabulous and 
contradictory to historical truth, as well as to the canoni- 
cal Scriptures ; and also because they contain passages 
w ? hich are false, absurd, and incredible. These human 
productions were first enrolled among the divinely in- 
spired writings by the assembly of popish prelates and 
others, who were convened in what is called the council 
of Trent. 

I. The first book of Esdras is only extant in Greek, 
and is so called because the events related in it occurred 
before the Babylonian captivity. It is chiefly historical, 
and gives an account of the return of the Jew T s from 



ON THE APOORVPHA. 31 1 

the Babylonish captivity, the building of the temple, and 
the re-establishment of divine worship. 

II. The second book op Esdras is supposed to have 
been originally written in Greek, though at present it is 
only extant in Latin, of which there is an Arabic version, 
differing very materially from it, and having many interpo- 
lations. The author of this book is unknown ; but the 
allusions to Jesus Christ, and to the phraseology of the 
New Testament, prove it to be the composition of some 
Jewish Christian. It abounds with absurd rabbinical tales 
and fables. 

III. Concerning the author of the book of Tobit, or 
the time when he flourished, we have no authentic infor- 
mation. It professes to relate the history of Tobit and 
his family, who were carried into captivity to Nineveh 
by Shalmanezer : but it contains so many rabbinical 
fables, and allusions to the Babylonian demonology, that 
many learned men consider it as an ingenious and amusing 
fiction, calculated to form a pious temper, and to teach the 
most important duties. The simplicity of its narrative 
and the pious and moral lessons it inculcates, have impart- 
ed to it an interest, which has rendered it one of the most 
popular of the apocryphal writings. 

IV. The book of Judith professes to relate the defeat 
of the Assyrians by the Jews, through the instrumentality 
of their countrywoman Judith, whose genealogy is recorded 
in the, eighth chapter ; but so many geographical, histori- 
cal, and chronological difficulties attend this book, that the 
most eminent critics have considered it rather as a drama, 
or parable, than a real history. The author is utterly un- 
known. This book was originally written in Chaldee, and 
translated into Latin. 

V. u The rest of the chapters of the book of 
Esther, which are found neither in the Hebrew nor in 
the Chaldee," were originally written in Greek, whence 
they were translated into Latin, and formed part of the 
Italic or old Latin version in use before the time of Je- 
rome. Being there annexed to the canonical book, they 
passed without censure, but were rejected by Jerome in 
his version, because he confined himself to the Hebrew 
Scriptures, and these chapters never were extant in the 
Hebrew language. They are evidently the production 



312 ON THE APOCRYPHA. 

of an Hellenistic Jew, but are considered both by Jerome 
and Grotius as a work of pure fiction, which was annexed 
to the canonical book of Esther by way of embellishment. 

VI. " The Wisdom of Solomon" is commonly ascribed 
to that Hebrew monarch, either because the author imita- 
ted his sententious manner of writing, or because he 
sometimes speaks in his name, the better to recommend 
his moral precepts. It is, however, certain that Solomon 
was not the author, for it was never extant in Hebrew, 
nor received into the Hebrew canon, nor is the style like 
that of Solomon. This book has always been admired 
for its elegance and for the admirable moral tendency of 
its precepts. It consists of two parts : the first contains a 
description or encomium of wisdom, (ch. i. — x.) The 
second part, comprising the rest of the book, treats on a 
variety of topics widely differing from the subject of the 
first ; viz. : reflections on the history and conduct of the 
Israelites during their journeyings in the wilderness, and 
neir subsequent proneness to idolatry. 

VIT. Although the " Wisdom of Jesus, the son op 
Sirach," or Ecclesiasticus, has sometimes been con 
sidered as the production of Solomon, yet the style and 
other internal evidences prove that it could not possibly 
have been written by the Hebrew monarch. Respecting 
the author of Ecclesiasticus we have no information be- 
yond what this book itself imparts ; viz.: that it was writ- 
ten by a person of the name of Jesus, the son of Sirach, 
who had travelled in pursuit of knowledge. This man, 
being deeply conversant with the Old Testament, and 
having collected many things from the prophets, blended 
them, as well as the sentences ascribed to Solomon, with 
the result of his own observation, and thus endeavoured 
to produce a work of instruction that might be useful to 
his countrymen. This book was written in Hebrew, oi 
rather the Syro-Chaldaic dialect, then in use in Judaea, 
and was translated by his grandson into Greek, for the 
use of the Alexandrian Jews, who were ignorant of the 
language of Judaea. The translator himself is supposed 
to have been a son of Sirach, as well as his grandfather, 
the author. The book was probably written about the 
year 232 b. c, when the author might be seventy years 
of age ; and it was translated about sixty years after. 



ON THE APOCRYPHA. 313 

This book has met with general and deserved esteem 
in the Western church, and was introduced into the public 
service by the venerable reformers and compilers of our 
national liturgy 

It commences with an exhortation to the pursuit of 
wisdom : this is followed by numerous moral sentences or 
maxims, arranged in a less desultory manner than the pro- 
verbs of Solomon, as far as the forty-fourth chapter, at 
which the author begins his eulogy of the patriarchs, pro- 
phets, and celebrated men among the Jews, to the end of 
the fiftieth chapter. And the book concludes with a prayer. 

VIII. It is alike uncertain by whom, or in what lan- 
guage, the book of Baruch was written ; and whether 
it contains any matters historically true, or whether the 
whole is a fiction. The principal subject of the book is 
an epistle, pretended to be sent by Jehoiakim and the cap- 
tive Jews in Babylon, to their brethren in Judah and 
Jerusalem. The last chapter contains an epistle which 
falsely bears the name of Jeremiah. 

IX. " The song of the three children" is placed 
in the Greek version of Daniel, and also in the Vulgate 
Latin version, between the twenty-third and twenty-fourth 
verses of the third chapter. It does not appear to have 
ever been extant in Hebrew, and although it has always 
been admired for the piety of its sentiments, it was never 
admitted to be canonical, until it was recognised by the 
council of Trent. 

X. The history of Susanna is evidently the work of 
some Hellenistic Jew : and in the Vulgate version it forms 
the thirteenth chapter of the book of Daniel. Some 
modern critics consider it to be both spurious and fabulous. 

XL " The History of the Destruction of Bel and the 
Dragon" was always rejected by the Jewish church ; it. is 
not extant either in the Hebrew or the Chaldee language. 
Jerome gives it no better title than that of the Fable of 
Bel and the Dragon ; nor has it obtained more credit 
with posterity, except with the Romish clergy present at 
the council of Trent, who determined it to be a part of 
the canonical Scriptures. The design of this fiction is to 
render idolatry ridiculous, and to e*xalt the true God ; but 
the author has destroyed the illusion of his fiction by 



314 °N THE APOCRYPHA 

transporting to Babylon the worship of animals, which was 
never practised in that country. 

XII. "The Prayer of Manasses, king of Judah, 
when he was holden captive in Babylon," though not un- 
worthy of the occasion on which it is pretended to have 
been composed, was never recognised as canonical. It is 
rejected as spurious even by the church of Rome. 

XIII. The two books of Maccabees are thus denomi- 
nated, because they relate to the patriotic and gallant ex- 
ploits of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren : they are 
both admitted into the canon of Scripture by the church 
of Rome. 

1. The first book contains the history of the Jews, 
from the beginning of the reign of Autiochus Epiphanes 
to the death of Simon, a period of about thirty-four years. 
It was originally written in the Syro-Chaldaic language, 
and was most probably composed in the time of John 
Hyrcanus, when the wars of the Maccabees were termi- 
nated, either by Hyrcanus himself, or by some persons 
employed by him. From the Syro-Chaldaic it was trans- 
lated into Greek, and thence into Latin. Our English 
version is made from the Greek. The first book of Mac- 
cabees is a most valuable historical monument. 

2. The second book of Maccabees is very inferior to 
the preceding, and consists of several pieces compiled by 
an unknown author ; it must therefore be read with great 
caution. It contains the history of about fifteen years, 
from the execution of the commission of Heliodorus, who 
was sent by Seleucus to bring away the treasures of 
the Temple, to the victory obtained by Judas Maccabeus 
over Nicanor, that is, from the year of the world 3S28 to 
3343. Two ancient translations of this book are extant, 
one in Syriac, the other in Latin : the version in on 
Bibles was executed from the Greek. 



Bio 



BOOK II.— ANALYSIS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



CHAPTER II. 



ON THF. HISTORICAL BOOKS OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
Section I.— On the Name and Number of the Canonical Gospel 

The word EYA-NTEAION, (Euangelion,) which we 
translate Gospel, among Greek profane writers signifies 
any good tidings,* and corresponds exactly with our 
English word Gospel, which is derived from the Saxon 
words sob, God or good, and rpei, word or tiding, and 
denotes God's word or good tidings. In the New Testa- 
ment this term is confined to the glad tidings of the actual 
coming of the Messiah, and is even opposed to the pro- 
phecies concerning Christ. (Matt. xi. 5, Rom. i. I, 2.) 
Hence Ecclesiastical writers gave the appellation of Gos- 
pels to the lives of Christ — that is, to those sacred histo- 
ries in which are recorded the " good tidings of great joy 
to all people," of the advent of the Messiah, together 
with all its joyful circumstances : and hence the authors 
of those histories have acquired the title of evangelists. 
Besides this general title, the sacred writers use the term 
Gospel, with a variety of epithets, derived from the nature 
of its contents. See instances in Eph. i. 13, vi. 15, Rom. 
i. 1. 3, and 2 Cor. v. 19. 

The Gospels which have been transmitted to us are four 
in number : and we learn from ecclesiastical history, that 
four, and four only, were ever received by the Christian 
church as the genuine and inspired writings of the evan- 
gelists. And it is a considerable advantage, that a history, 
of such importance as that of Jesus Christ, has been re- 
corded by the pens of separate and independent writers ; 
for, by the contradictions, whether real or apparent, which 
are visible in these accounts, (but which admit of easy 

* From tv (fiu) good, and avyckia (angelia) a message or tidings. 



310 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS 

solution by any attentive reader,) they have incontestably 
proved that they did not unite with a view of imposing a 
fabulous narrative on mankind. And in all matters of 
consequence, whether doctrinal or historical, there is such 
a manifest agreement between them as is to be found in no 
other writings whatever. 



Section II.— On the Gospel by Saint Matthew. 

Matthew, surnamed Levi, was the son of Alpheus, but 
not of that Alpheus, or Cleopas, who was the father of 
James, mentioned in Matt. x. 3. He was a native of Gali- 
lee, but of what city in that country, or of what tribe of 
the people of Israel, we are not informed. Before, his 
conversion to Christianity, he was a publican or tax-ga- 
therer, under the Romans, and collected the customs of all 
goods exported or imported at Capernaum, a maritime 
town on the sea of Galilee, and also received the tribute 
paid by all passengers who went by water. While em- 
ployed " at the receipt of custom," Jesus called him to be 
a witness of his words and works, thus conferring upon 
him the honourable office of an apostle. From that time 
he continued with Jesus Christ, a familiar attendant on 
his person, a spectator of his public and private conduct, 
a hearer of his discourses, a witness of his miracles, and 
an evidence of his resurrection. After our Saviour's as- 
cension, Matthew continued at Jerusalem with the other 
apostles, and with them, on the day of Pentecost, was 
endued with the gift of the Holy Spirit. Of how long he 
remained in Judsea after that event, or of where he died, 
we have no authentic accounts. He is generally allowed 
to have written first of all the evangelists, though a consi- 
derable difference of opinion exists as to the language in 
which and the time when his Gospel was composed. 
Some critics think that its original language was Hebrew; 
others, Greek ; while a third class decide in favour of a 
Hebrew and Greek original. The reasons on which these 
several opinions are founded are detailed in the author's 
larger Introduction, which do not admit of abridgment . 
the most probable is that, which determines that Matthew 
wrote a Hebrew Gospel for the Hebrew Christians, about 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 317 

the year 37, and afterwards a Greek Gospel, about the 
year 61. The present Greek Gospel has every internal 
mark of being an original writing : and the disappearance 
of the Hebrew Gospel is sufficiently accounted for, not 
only by the prevalence of the Greek language, but also 
by the fact that it was so corrupted by the Ebionites (a 
sect contemporary with St. John,) as to lose all its au- 
thority in the church. The authenticity of his Gospel 
was never doubted. 

The voice of antiquity accords in testifying that St. 
Matthew wrote his Gospel in Judsea for the Jewish nation 
while the church consisted wholly of the circumcision, 
that is, of Jewish and Samaritan believers, but principally 
Jewish : and that he wrote it primarily for their use, with 
a view to confirm those who believed, and to convert 
those who believed not, we have, besides historical facts, 
very strong presumptions from the book itself. Every cir- 
cumstance is carefully pointed out, which might concili- 
ate the faith of that nation ; and every unnecessary ex- 
pression is avoided, that might in any way tend to obstruct 
it. The Gospel of St. Matthew consists of four parts ; 
viz.: 

Part I. treats on the Infancy of Jesus Christ, (ch. i., ii.) 
Part II. records the Discourses and Actions of John 
the Baptist and of Jesus Christ, preparatory to our Sa- 
viour's commencing his public ministry, (ch. iii. iv. 1 

Part III. relates the Discourses and Actions of Christ 
in Galilee, by which he demonstrated that he was the 
Messiah, (ch. iv. 12.— xx. 16.) 

Part IV. contains the Transactions relative to the pas- 
sion and resurrection of Christ, (ch. xx. 17, — xxviii.) 



Section III.— On the Gospel by Saint Mark. 

This evangelist, whose Hebrew name was Jonn, was 
nephew to Barnabas, (Col. iv. 10,) and the son of Mary, a 
pious woman in Jerusalem, at whose house the apostles 
and first Christians often assembled. (Acts xii. 12.) He 
is supposed to have adopted the surname of Mark, when 
he left Judsea to preach the Gospel in foreign countries 
27* 



318 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 

The consent of antiquity attests that he wrote his Gospel 
in Greek, under the inspection of the apostle Peter, at 
Rome, and between the years 60 and 63. It may be divi- 
ded into three parts ; viz. : 

Part I. The Transactions from the Baptism of Christ 
to his entering on the more public part of his Ministry, 
(ch. i. 1—13.) 

Part II. The Discourses and Actions of Jesus Christ 
to his going up to Jerusalem to the fourth and last Pass- 
over, (ch. i. 14, — xj 

Part III. The Passion, Death, and Resurrection of 
Christ, (ch. xi. — xiv.) 



Section IV.— On the Gospel by Saint Luke. 

St. Luke was descended from Gentile parents, and in 
his youth had embraced Judaism, from which he was 
converted to Christianity. He was for the most part the 
companion of the apostle Paul : and as no ancient writer 
has mentioned his suffering martyrdom, it is probable 
that he died a natural death. The genuineness and au- 
thenticity of his Gospel and of the Acts of the Apostles 
were never doubted. The Gospel appears to have been 
written about the year 63 or 64 : it was written for Gen- 
tile Christians, and the events which he has recorded are 
classed, after the manner of some ancient profane writers, 
instead of being disposed in chronological order, as St. 
Matthew has related them. The Gospel of St. Luke may 
be divided into five classes or sections ; viz. : 

Class I. contains the narrative of the birth of Christ, 
together with all the circumstances that preceded, attended, 
and followed it. (ch. i. ii. 1 — 40.) 

Class II. comprises the particulars relative to our Sa- 
viour's infancy and youth, (ch. ii. 41 — 52.) 

Class III. includes the preaching of John, and the 
baptism of Jesus Christ, whose genealogy is annexed, 
(ch. iii.) 

Class IV. comprehends the discourses, miracles, and 
actions of Jesus Christ during the whole of his ministry, 
(ch. iv. — ix. 50.) This appears evident ; for, after Saint 
Luke had related his temptation in the wilderness, (ch. iv. 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 319 

1 — 13,) he immediately adds, that Christ returned to Gali- 
lee, (14,) and mentions Nazareth, (16,) Capernaum, (31,) 
and the lake of Gennesareth ; (v. 1 ;) and then he proceeds 
as far as ix. 50, to relate our Saviour's transactions in 
Galilee. 

Class V. begins with chap. ix. 51, and contains an ac- 
count of our Saviour's last journey to Jerusalem. Con- 
sequently, this class comprises every thing relative to 
his passion, death, resurrection, and ascension, (ix. 51 — 
62, x. — xxiv.) 



Section V.— On the Gospel by Saint John 

Saint John, the evangelist and apostle, was the son of 
Zebedee, a fisherman of the town of Bethsaida, on the 
sea of Galilee, and the younger brother of James the 
elder. His mother's name was Salome. He was emi- 
nently the object of our Lord's regard and confidence ; 
and was, on various occasions, admitted to free and inti- 
mate intercourse with him, so that he was characterized as 
"the disciple whom Jesus loved." (John xiii. 23.) Hence 
we find him present at several scenes, to which most of the 
other disciples were not admitted. He died a natural 
death about the year 100. He wrote his Gospel in Greek, 
most probably about the year 97 : it has been universally 
received as genuine : indeed, besides the uninterrupted 
testimony of Christian antiquity, the circumstantiality of 
its details prove that his book was written by an eye- 
witness of the transactions it records. 

The general design of Saint John, in common with the 
rest of the evangelists, is, as he himself assures us, to prove 
that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of Cod, and that be- 
lieving, we may have life through his name. (xx. 31.) But, 
besides this, we are informed by ancient writers, that there 
were two especial motives that induced Saint John to com- 
pose his Gospel. One was, to supply those important 
events in our Saviour's life which had been omitted by the 
other evangelists ; the other motive was, that he might re- 
fute the heresies of Cerinthus and the Nicolaitans, who 
had attempted to corrupt the Christian doctrine. Of the 
Nicolaitans nothing certain is known : but, concerning 



320 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS 

the tenets of the Cerinthians, the following particulars 
(taken from the author's larger Introduction) are neces- 
sary to be known in order to understand the design of the 
evangelist in composing his Gospel. 

Cerinthus was by birth a Jew, who lived at the close of 
the first century : having studied literature and philosophy 
at Alexandria, he attempted, at length, to form a new and 
singular system of doctrine and discipline, by a monstrous 
combination of the doctrines of Jesus Christ, with the 
opinions and errors of the Jews and Gnostics. From the latter 
he borrowed their Pleroma, or fulness, their JEons, or spi- 
rits, their Demiurgus, or creator of the visible world, &c. and 
so modified and tempered these fictions as to give them an 
air of Judaism, which must have considerably favoured 
the progress of his heresy. He taught, that the most high 
God was utterly unknown before the appearance of Christ, 
and dwelt in a remote heaven called LTAHPfiMA (Pleroma) 
with the chief spirits, or aeons. That this supreme God 
first generated an only begotten son, MONOrENHE (Mo- 
nogenes, who again begat the word, AOFOE (Logos,) 
which was inferior to the first-born. That Christ was a 
still lower aeon, though far superior to some others. That 
there were two higher aeons, distinct from Christ ; one 
called ZQB.(Zde,) or life, and the other $£2E (Phos,) or 
the light. That from the aeons again proceeded inferior 
orders of spirits, and particularly one Demiurgus, who 
created this visible world out of eternal matter. That 
this Demiurgus was ignorant of the supreme God, and 
much lower than the aeons, which were wholly invisible. 
That he was, however, the peculiar God and protector of 
the Israelites, and sent Moses to them, whose laws were to 
be of perpetual obligation. That Jesus was a mere man, 
of the most illustrious sanctity and justice, the real son of 
Joseph and Mary. That the aeon Christ descended upop 
him in the form of a dove, when he was baptized, re- 
vealed to him the unknown Father, and empowered him 
to work miracles. That the aeon light entered John the 
Baptist in the same manner, and, therefore, that John was 
in some respects preferable to Christ. That Jesus, after 
his union with Christ, opposed himself with vigour to the 
God of the Jews, at whose instigation he was seized and 
crucified bv the Hebrew chiefs, and that when Jesus was 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 321 

taken captive, and came to suffer, Christ ascended up on 
high, so that the man Jesus alone was subjected to the 
pains of an ignominious death. That Christ will one day 
return upon earth, and renewing his former union with the 
man Jesus, will reign in Palestine a thousand years, during 
which his disciples will enjoy the most exquisite sensual 
delights 

Bearing these dogmas in mind, we shall find that Saint 
John's Gospel is divided into three parts, viz. 

Part I. contains doctrines laid down in opposition to 
those of Cerinthus. (John i. 1 — 18.) 

Part TI. delivers the proofs of those doctrines in a 
historical manner, (i. 19, — xx. 29. 

Part III. is a conclusion, or appendix, giving an ac- 
count of the person of the writer, and of his design in 
writing his Gospel, (xx. 30, 31, xxi.) 



Section VL — On the Acts of the Apostles. 

The Book of the Acts of the Apostles forms the fifth 
and last of the historical books of the New Testament, 
and connects the Gospels with the Epistles ; being a 
useful postscript to the former, and a proper introduction 
to the latter. That Saint Luke was the author of the Acts 
of the Apostles, is evident, both from the introduction, and 
from the unanimous testimonies of the early Christians. 
The Gospel and the Book of the Acts of the Apostles 
r.re both inscribed to Theophilus : and in the very first 
verse of the Acts there is a reference made to his Gospel, 
which he calls " the former Treatise." On this account 
Dr. Benson and some other critics have conjectured that 
Saint Luke wrote the Gospel and Acts in one book, and 
divided it into two parts. From the frequent use of the 
first person plural, it is clear that he was present at most 
of the transactions he relates. To the genuineness and 
authenticity of this book, which was written about the 
year 63, all the Christian Fathers bear unanimous testi- 
mony. 

The acts of the apostles may be divided into three prin- 
cipal parts ; viz. : 



322 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS 

Part I. contains the Rise and Progress of the mother 
church at Jerusalem, from the time of our Saviour's 
ascension to the first Jewish persecution, (ch. i.— viii.) 

Part II. comprises the Dispersion of the Disciples — the 
propagation of Christianity among the Samaritans — the 
conversion of Saint Paul, and the foundation of a Chris- 
tian church at Antioch. (ch. viii. 5, xii.) 

Part III. describes the conversion of the more remote 
Gentiles, by Barnabas and Paul, and, after their separation, 
by Paul and his associates, among whom was Luke him- 
self during the latter part of Paul's labours, (ch. xiii. — 
xx viii.) 

The Acts of the Apostles afford abundant evidence of 
the truth and divine original of the Christian religion ; 
for we learn from this book, that the Gospel was not in- 
debted for its success to deceit or fraud ; but it was wholly 
the result of the mighty power of God, and of the excel- 
lence and efficacy of the saving truths which it contains. 
The general and particular doctrines comprised in the 
Acts of the Apostles, are perfectly in unison with the 
glorious truths revealed in the Gospels, and illustrated in 
the apostolic Epistles ; and are admirably suited to the 
state of the persons, whether Jews or Gentiles, to whom 
they were addressed. And the evidences which the 
apostles gave of their doctrine, in their appeals to pro- 
phecies and miracles, and the various gifts of the Spirit, 
were so numerous and so strong, and at the same time so 
widely adapted to every class of persons, that the truth of 
the religion which they attest cannotbe reasonably disputed. 

In perusing this very interesting portion of sacred his- 
tory, it will be desirable constantly to refer to the accom- 
panying map of the Travels of the Apostles, particularly 
those of Saint Paul. 



ON THE EPISTOLARY WRITINGS 323 



CHAPTER II. 

ON THE EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WHITINGS OP THE NEW TESTAMENT, PAR- 
TICULARLY THOSE OF SAINT PAUL. 



Section I.— A Brief Account of the Apostle Paul. — Nature of the Epistolarly 
Writings of the New Testament. 

I. A Brief Account of Saint Paul. 

Saul, also called Paul, (by which name this illustrious 
apostle was generally known after his preaching among 
the Gentiles, especially among the Greeks and Romans,) 
was a Hebrew of the Hebrews, a descendant of the patri- 
arch Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin, and a native of 
Tarsus, then the chief city of Cilicia. By birth he was a 
citizen of Rome, a distinguished honour and privilege, 
which had been conferred on some of his ancestors for 
services rendered to the commonwealth during the wars. 
His father was a Pharisee, and he himself was educated 
in the most rigid principles of that sect ; but he was also 
early initiated into Greek literature at Tarsus : and his 
parents completed his education by having him taught the 
art of tent-making, in conformity with the custom of the 
Jews at that time. It appears from Acts xxiii. 16 — 22, 
and Rom. xvi. 7. 11. 21, that his sister's son and some 
others of his relations were Christians, and had embraced 
the Gospel before his conversion ; but Saul himself was 
an inveterate enemy of the Christian name and faith, until 
his conversion in a.d. 35, on the road to Damascus 
whither he was going with letters of commission from the 
high priest and elders, or sanhedrin, to the synagogue 
of the Jews at Damascus, empowering him to bring to 
Jerusalem any Christians, whether men or women, whom 
he might find there. 

Shortly after his baptism, and the descent of the Holy 
Spirit upon him, Saul went into Arabia ; (Gal. i. 17 ;) and 
during his residence in that country he was fully instruct- 
ed, as we may reasonably think, by divine revelation, 
and by diligent study of the Old Testament, in the doc- 
trines and duties of the Gospel. Three years after 
his conversion, he returned to Damascus, a.d. 38, 
(Gal. i. 18,) and boldly preached the Gospel to the Jews, 



324 EPISTOLARY OK DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 

who, rejecting his testimony, as an apostate, conspired 
to kill him; but, the plot being communicated to Saul, he 
escaped from Damascus privately by night, and went up 
to Jerusalem, for the first time since his conversion. After 
some hesitation on the part of the Christians in that city, 
he was acknowledged to be a disciple. He remained at 
Jerusalem only fifteen days, during which his boldness in 
preaching the Gospel so irritated the Hellenistic Jews, 
that they conspired against him ; " which when the brethren 
knew, they brought him down to Ccesarea Philippi, and 
sent him forth to Tarsus." (Acts ix. 28 — 30.) 

From that time (a.d. 39) to the year 58, the apostle 
preached the Gospel in various parts of Asia Minor and 
in Greece with great energy and success; but, being 
rescued from a tumultuous assembly of Jews, who would 
have put him to death, at Jerusalem, (Acts xxi, xxii.) he 
was sent Csesarea by the tribune Lysias, who directed the 
Jewish council to accuse him before Felix, the Roman 
procurator. By this officer he was detained in prison two 
years ; and, his cause being heard before Festus the suc- 
cessor of Felix, the apostle appealed to the imperial 
tribunal, and was sent to Rome, (Acts xxiv. — xxvii.) a.d. 
60. Here he was confined two years, from a.d. 61 to 63. 
As Saint Luke has not continued Saint Paul's history be- 
yond his first imprisonment at Rome, we have no authen- 
tic record of his subsequent travels and labours from the 
spring of a.d. 63, when he was released, to the time of 
his martyrdom. This is said to have taken place by de- 
capitation, June 29, a.d. 66, at Aquae Salvia?, three miles 
from Rome. Fourteen epistles are- extant bearing the 
name of this distinguished " apostle of Jesus Christ," 
whose life and labours have justly been considered as an 
irrefragable proof of the truth of the Christian revelation. 

II. Nature and Design of the Epistolary Writings of the 
New Testament 

The Epistles, or letters addressed to various Christian 
communities, and also to individuals, by the apostles Paul, 
James, Peter, and John, form the second principal division 
of the New Testament. These writings abundantly con- 
firm all the material facts related in the Gospels and Acts 
of the Apostles. The particulars of our Savour's life and 
death are often referred to in them, as grounded upon the 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &c. 325 

undoubted testimony of eye-witnesses, and as "being the 
foundation of the Christian religion. The speedy pro- 
pagation of the Christian faith, recorded in the Acts, 
is confirmed beyond all contradiction, by innumerable 
passages in the Epistles, written to the churches already- 
planted ; and the miraculous gifts, with which the apostles 
were endued, are often appealed to in the same writings, 
as an undeniable evidence of the divine mission of the 
apostles. 

Though all the essential doctrines and precepts of the 
Christian religion were unquestionably taught by our 
Saviour himself, and are contained in the Gospels, yet it 
is evident to any person who attentively studies the 
Epistles, that they are to be considered as commentaries 
on the doctrines of the Gospel, addressed to particular 
Christian societies or persons, in order to explain and 
apply those doctrines more fully, to confute some growing 
errors, to compose differences and schisms, to reform 
abuses and corruptions, to excite the Christians to holiness, 
and to encourage them against persecutions. And since 
these Epistles were written (as we have already shown) 
under divine inspiration, and have uniformly been received 
by the Christian church as the productions of inspired 
writers, it consequently follows, (notwithstanding some 
writers have insinuated that they are not of equal authority 
with the Gospels, while others would reject them alto- 
gether,) that what the apostles have delivered in these 
Epistles, as necessary to be believed or done by Christians, 
must be as necessary to be believed and practised in order 
to salvation, as the doctrines and precepts delivered by 
Jesus Christ himself, and recorded in the Gospels ; because 
in writing these Epistles, the sacred penmen were the 
servants, apostles, ambassadors, and ministers of Christ, 
and stewards of the mysteries of God, and their doctrine ; 
and precepts are the will, the mind, the truth, and the com- 
mandments of God himself. On account of the fuller dis- 
plays of evangelical truth contained in this portion of the 
sacred volume, the Epistles have by some divines been 
termed the doctrinal books of the New Testament. 

The Epistles contained in the New Testament are 
twenty-one in number, and are generally divided into 
two classes ; viz. : the fourteen Epistles of Saint Paul, 

28 



3»26 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITLNUa 

and the seven Catholic or general Epistles, written by the 
apostles James, Peter, John, and Jude : the reason of this 
appellation will be found in Chapter III. Sect. I. page 338. 
infra. 

The general plan on which the Epistles are written, is, 
first, to discuss and decide the controversy, or to refute 
the erroneous notions, which had arisen in the church, or 
among the persons to whom they are addressed, and 
which was the occasion of their being written ; and, 
secondly, to recommend the observance of those duties, 
which would be necessary, and of absolute importance to 
the Christian church in every age, consideration being 
miefly given to those particular graces or virtues of the 
Christian character, which the disputes that occasioned 
the Epistles might tempt them to neglect. 

The observations on the Doctrinal interpretation of 
Scripture, in pp. 149 — 151, will be found useful in study- 
ing the Epistles. A Table of the times, when they were 
most probably composed, will be found in the Appendix, 
No. II. 



Section. II.— On the Epistle to the Romans. 

The Epistle to the Romans, though seventh in order 
time, is placed first of all the apostolical letters, eithe* 
from the pre-eminence of Rome, as being the mistress of 
.the world, or because it is the longest and most compre- 
hensive of all Saint Paul's Epistles. Various years have 
been assigned for its date : but the most probable date is 
that, which refers this Epistle to the end of 57, or the 
beginning of 5S ; at which time Saint Paul was at Corinth. 

Christianity is generally supposed to have been first 
planted at Rome by some of those " strangers of Rome, 
Jews, and proselytes," (Acts ii. 10,) who heard Peter 
preach, and were converted at Jerusalem on the day of 
Pentecost. 

The occasion of writing this Epistle may be easily 
collected from the Epistle itself. It appears that Saint 
Paul, who had been made acquainted with all the circum- 
stances of the Christians at Rome by Aquila and Priscilla, 
(Rom. xvi. 3,) and by other Jews who had been expelled 



tPISTOLAKA OK DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 3^7 

from Rome by the decree of Claudius, (Actsxviii. 2,) was 
very desirous of seeing them, that he might impart some 
spiritual gift ; but, being prevented from visiting them, as 
he had purposed, in his journey into Spain, he availed 
himself of the opportunity that presented itself to him by 
the departure of Phoebe to Rome, to send them an Epistle. 
Finding, however, that the church was composed partly 
of Heathens who had embraced the Gospel, and partly of 
Jews, who, with many remaining prejudices, believed in 
Jesus as the Messiah ; and finding, also, that many con- 
tentions arose from the Gentile converts claiming equal 
privileges with the Hebrew Christians, (which claims the 
latter absolutely refused to admit, unless the Gentile con- 
verts were circumcised,) he wrote this Epistle to compose 
these differences, and to strengthen the faith of the Roman, 
Christians against the insinuations of false teachers ; being 
apprehensive lest his involuntary absence from Rome 
should be turned by the latter to the prejudice of the 
Gospel. 

This Epistle consists of four parts ; viz. : 
Part I. The introduction, (ch. i. 1—13.) 
Part II. contains the Doctrinal Part of the Epistle con- 
cerning justification, (i. 16 — 32, ii. — xi.) 

Part III. comprises the Hortatory or Practical Part 
of the Epistle, (ch. xii. — xv. 1 — 14,) in which the apos- 
tle exhorts Christian believers to dedicate themselves to 
God, and how they should demean themselves to one 
another. 

Part IV. The Conclusion, in which Saint Paul ex- 
cuses himself, partly for his boldness in thus writing to 
the Romans, (xv. 14 — 21,) and partly for not having 
hitherto come to them, (22,) but promises to visit them, 
recommending himself to their prayers ; (23—33;) and 
sends various salutations to the brethren at Rome, 
(xvi.) 

In perusing this Epistle, it will be desirable to read 
at least the eleven first chapters at once, uninterruptedly ; 
as every sentence, especially in the argumentative part, 
bears an intimate relation to, and is dependent upon the 
whole discourse, and cannot be understood unless we com- 
prehend the scope of the whole. Further, in order to 
enter fully into its spirit, we must enter into the spirit of 



32b OF SACKED PLACES. 

a Jew in those times, and endeavour to realize in our 
own minds his utter aversion from the Gentiles, his valu- 
ing and exalting himself upon his relation to God and to 
Abraham, and also upon his law, pompous worship, cir- 
cumcision, &c. as if the Jews were the only people in the 
world who had any right to the favour of God. 



Section III. — On the First Epistle to the Corinthians. 

This Epistle was written from Ephesus, about the year 
57 : its genuineness was never disputed. 

Christianity was first planted at Corinth, by St. Paul 
himself, who resided here a year and six months, between 
the years 51 and 53. The church consisted partly of 
Jews, and partly of Gentiles, but chiefly of the latter ; 
whence the apostle had to combat, sometimes with Jewish 
superstition, and sometimes with Heathen licentiousness. 
On Saint Paul's departure from Corinth, he was succeeded 
by Apollos, " an eloquent man, and mighty in the Scrip- 
tures," who preached the Gospel with great success. (Acts 
xviii. 24 — 28.) Acquila and Sosthenes were also eminent 
teachers in this church, (xviii. 3. 1 Cor. i. 1.) But shortly 
after Saint Paul quitted this church, its peace was disturb- 
ed by the intrusion of false teachers, who made great preten- 
sions to eloquence, wisdom, and knowledge of their Chris- 
tian liberty, and thus undermined his influence and the 
credit of his ministry. Hence two parties were formed, 
one of which contended strenuously for the observance of 
Jewish ceremonies, while the other, misinterpreting the 
true nature of Christian liberty, indulged in excesses 
which were contrary to the design and spirit of the Gospel. 
One party boasted that they were the followers of Paul ; 
and another, that they were the followers of Apollos. 
To correct these and other abuses, and also to answer 
some queries which the Christians at Corinth had propo- 
sed to the apostle, was the design of this Epistle, which 
divides itself into three parts ; viz. : 

Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1 — 9,) in which Saint 
Paul expresses his satisfaction at all the good he knew of 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, drC. 329 

them, particularly at their having received the gifts of the 
Holy Spirit for the confirmation of the Gospel. 

Part II. contains the Treatise, or Discussion of various 
particulars, adapted to the state of the Corinthian church ; 
which may be commodiously arranged into two sections. 

Sect. 1. contains a reproof of the corruptions and abuses which dis- 
graced the church, (i. 10. — vi. 1 — 20. 

Sect. 2. contains an answer to the questions which the Corinthian 
church had proposed to the apostle, (vii. — xv.) 

Part III. contains the conclusion, comprising directions 
relative to the contributions for the saints at Jerusalem, 
promises that the apostle would shortly visit them, and 
salutations to various members of the church at Corinth, 
(xvi.) 



Section IV. — On the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. 

This Epistle was written from Macedonia, most proba-* 
bly from Philippi, and within a year after the preceding 
Epistle, that is, early in the year 58 : its genuineness was 
never doubted. Compelled to vindicate his apostolic cha- 
racter, Saint Paul here furnishes us with many interesting 
details respecting his personal history and sufferings for the 
name and faith of Christ. He commends the faithful mem- 
bers of the church at Corinth, for their obedience to his 
injunctions contained in his former Epistle, and particu- 
larly for excommunicating an incestuous person ; and ex- 
cites them to finish their contributions for their poor bre 
thren in Judaea. s 

This epistle consists of three parts, viz. : 

Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.) 

Part II. The Apologetic Discourse of Saint Paul ; in 
which 

1. He justifies himself from the imputations of the false teacher and 
his adherents, by showing his sincerity and integrity in the discharge of 
his ministry ; and that he acted not from worldly interest, but from true 
love for them, and a tender concern for their spiritual welfare, (i. 3—24. 
ii.— vii.) 

2. He exhorts them to a liberal contribution for their poor brethren in 
Judaea, (viii., ix.) 

3. He resumes his apology; justifying himself from the charges and in- 
sinuations of the false teacher, and his followers; in order to detach the 
Corinthians from them, and to re-establish himself and his authority, (x. 
— xiii. 10.) 

Part III. The Conclusion, (xiii. 11—14.) 



330 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAI WRITINGS 



Section V.— On the Epistle to the Galatians. 

The Epistle to the Galatians, among whom Christianity 
had been planted by Saint Paul himself, was most proba- 
bly written from Corinth, about the latter end of the year 
52, or early in 53. The apostle's design in writing it was, 
first, to assert his apostolical character and authority, and the 
doctrine which he taught, in opposition to the erroneous 
tenets of a Judaising teacher ; and, secondly, to confirm 
the Galatian churches in the faith of Christ, especially 
with respect to the important point of justification by faith 
alone ; to expose the errors which had been disseminated 
among them, by demonstrating to them the true nature 
and use of the moral and ceremonial law ; and to revive 
those principles of Christianity which he had taug"i:t when 
he first preached the Gospel to them. 

This Epistle is written with great energy and force of 
language, and affords a fine specimen of Saint Paul's skill 
in conducting an argument. It consists of three parts, 
viz. : 

Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1 — 5.) 

Part II. The Treatise, or Discussion of the subjects 
which had occasioned this Epistle : in which the apostle 
first vindicates his doctrine and authority ; (ch. i. 6 — 24, 
ii. ;) and then disputes against the advocates for circum- 
cision, (iii. — v. 9,) and gives the Galatian Christians various 
instructions for their conduct, (v. 10 — 26, vi. 1 — 10.) 

Part III. The Conclusion, which is a summary of the 
topics discussed in this Epistle, terminates with an apos- 
tolic benediction, (vi. 11 — 18.) 



Section VI.— On the Epistle to the Ephesians. 

Ephesus was the metropolis of the proconsular Asia, 
distinguished for the magnificent temple of Diana, there 
erected, as well as for the accomplishments, luxury, and 
lasciviousness of its inhabitants. Christianity was first 
planted here, about a. d. 54, by Saint Paul ; who wrote 
this Epistle, (the genuineness of which is undisputed,) about 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &c 331 

the year 61, during the early part of hi-s imprisonment at 
Rome. In this animated epistle he shows the grand design 
of the Gospel, and exhorts his converts against those evil 
practices and customs to which they had been addicted 
when Heathens, (ch. i. — hi.,) and which, as believers in 
Christ, they had renounced. He then urges them to walk 
in a manner becoming their profession, in the faithful dis- 
charge both of the general and common duties of religion, 
and of the special duties of particular relations, (iv., v. 1 
— 9,) and encourages them to war the spiritual warfare, 
and concludes with his apostolic benediction, (vi. 10 — 24.) 



Section VII.— On the Epistle to the Philippians. 

This Epistle was written to the Philippians towards the 
close of Saint Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, about 
the end of the year 62, or early in 63 : its genuineness 
was never questioned. Its scope is to confirm them in the 
faith of the Gospel, (ch. i. 1 — 20,) and to encourage them 
to walk in a manner becoming their holy profession, (i. 21 
• — 30, ii.) He then cautions them against those Judaising 
teachers who preached Christ through envy and strife, 
(iii., iv. 1,) and concludes with various exhortations, at the 
same time testifying his gratitude to them for their Chris- 
tian bounty to him during his imprisonment, (iv. 2—23.) 



Section VIII. — On the Epistle to the Colossians. 

This Epistle bears so close a resemblance to that ad- 
dressed to the Ephesians, that they ought to be read 
together, in order to be fully understood. It is not known 
by whom Christianity was first planted at Colossae : from 
internal evidence we are enabled to refer its date to the 
year 62. No doubt was ever entertained respecting its 
genuineness. 

The scope of the Epistle to the Colossians is, first, to 
show, in opposition to the errors of some Judaising teach- 
ers, that all hope of man's redemption is founded on Christ 
our Redeemer, in whom alone all complete fulness, perfec- 
tions, and sufficiency, are centred ; (ch. i., ii. 1 — 7 ;) 



332 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 

secondly, to caution the Colossians against the insinuations 
of Judaising teachers, and also against philosophical specu- 
lations aud deceits, and human traditions, as inconsistent 
with Christ, and his fulness for our salvation ; (ii. 8 — 23 ;) 
and to excite the Colossians, by the most persuasive argu- 
ments, to a temper and conduct worthy of their sacred 
character, (iii., iv. 1 — 6.) The Epistle concludes with 
matters chiefly of a private nature, except the directions 
for reading it in the church of Laodicea, as well as that of 
Colossa?. (iv. 7—18.) 

The Epistle from Laodicea, mentioned in ch. iv. 16, 
which some have supposed to have been an epistle to the 
church at Laodicea, was most probably the Epistle to the 
Ephesians ; Laodicea being within the circuit of the Ephe- 
sian church. 



Section IX. — On the First Epistle to the Thessalonians 

Thessalonica was a large and populous city and seaport 
of Macedonia, the capital of one of the four districts into 
which the Romans divided that country after its conquest 
by Paulus ^Emylius. Besides being the seat of the pro- 
consul of Macedonia, Thessalonica was commodiously 
situated for commerce, which was carried on by its inhabit- 
ants to a considerable extent : the Jews were very nume- 
rous here. Christianity was first planted here by St. 
Paul, a. d. 50. The first Epistle to the Thessalonians 
was the earliest of all that apostle's writings : its date is 
referred to the year 52, and its genuineness has never 
been questioned. 

St. Paul having heard a favourable report of the stead- 
fastness of the Thessalonians in the faith of Christ, wrote 
this Epistle to confirm them in that faith, and to animate 
them to a holy conversation, becoming the dignity of their 
high and holy calling. With this view, after a short intro- 
duction, (ch. i. 1 — 4,) he proceeds to show the divine ori- 
gin of the Christian revelation, by the four following argu- 
ments ; viz. : 

I. The miracles wrought by the first preachers of the 
Gospel, in attestation of their divine commission, (i. 5 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &c. 333 

II. That their character, behaviour, and views, evi- 
denced its truth, (ii., iii.) 

III. That the first preachers of the Gospel delivered to 
their disciples, from the very beginning, precepts of the 
greatest strictness and holiness ; so that, by the sanctity of 
its precepts, the Gospel is shown to be a scheme of religion, 
every way worthy of the true Go-d, and highly beneficial 
to mankind, (iv. 1 — 12.) The practical directions intro- 
duced in this part of the Epistle were admirably suited to 
the state of the Thessalonian church. 

IV. That Jesus Christ, the Author of our religion, was 
declared to be the Son of God and the Judge of the world 
by his resurrection from the dead ; and that, by the same 
miracle, his own promise, and the predictions of his apos* 
ties, concerning his return from Heaven to reward the 
righteous and punish the wicked- — especially those who 
obey not the Gospel — are rendered absolutely certain, (iv. 
13—18, v. 1— II.) 

The Epistle concludes with various practical advices 
and instructions, (v. 12 — 28.) 



Section X. — On the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians. 

This Epistle was evidently written soon after the first : 
(a* d. 52 :) its scope principally is, to rectify a mistake of 
the Thessalonians, who, from misunderstanding a passage 
in his former letter, imagined that the day of judgment 
was at hand. This Epistle consists of five parts ; viz. : 

Part I. The Inscription, (i. 1, 2.) 

Part II. Saint Paul's Thanksgiving and Prayer for 
them. (i. 3—12.) 

Part III. The Rectification of their Mistake, and the 
Doctrine concerning the man of sin. (ii.) 

Part IV. Various Advices relative to Christian virtues, 

particularly, 

i. To Prayer, with a prayer for the Thessalonians. (iv. 1—5.) 
ii. To correct the disorderly, (iv. 6 — 16.) 

Part V. The Conclusion, (ii. 17, 18.) 



834 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 



Section XI.— On the First Epistle to Timothy. 

Timothy, to whom this Epistle was addressed, was a 
native of Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor. His 
father was a Greek, but his mother was a Jewess, (Acts 
xvi. 1,) and, as well as his grandmother Lois, a person of 
excellent character. (2 Tim. i. 5.) The pious care they 
took of his education soon appeared to have the desired 
success ; for we are assured by Saint Paul, that, from his 
childhood, Timothy was well acquainted with the Holy 
Scriptures. (2 Tim. iii. 15.) It is generally supposed that 
he was converted to the Christian faith during the first 
visit made by Paul and Barnabas to Lystra. (Acts xiv.) 
From the time of his conversion, Timothy made such pro- 
ficiency in the knowledge of the Gospel, and was sc re- 
markable for the sanctity of his manners, as well, as for 
his zeal in the cause of Christ, that he attracted the esteem 
of all the brethren in those parts. Accordingly, when the 
apostle came from Antioch, in Syria, to Lystra, the second 
time, they commended Timothy so highly to him, that 
Saint Paul selected him to be the companion of his tra- 
vels, having previously circumcised him, (Acts xvi. 1 — 3,) 
and ordained him in a solemn manner by imposition of 
hands, (1 Tim. iv. 14. 2 Tim. i. 6,) though at that time 
he probably was not more than twenty years of age. (1 
Tim. iv. 12.) From this period frequent mention is made 
of Timothy, as the attendant of Saint Paul in his various 
journe}^, assisting him in preaching the Gospel, and in 
conveying his instructions to the churches. 

The date of this Epistle has been much disputed, some 
writers placing it so early as the year 56, and others so 
late as the year 64. The latter is considered the most 
probable. This Epistle has always been acknowledged to 
be the undisputed production of Saint Paul 

Timothy having been left at Ephesus, to regulate the 
affairs of the church in that city, Saint Paul wrote this 
Epistle chiefly to instruct him in the choice of proper 
officers in the church, as well as in the exercise of a regu- 
lar ministry. Another, and very important part of the 
apostle's design, was to caution this young evangelist 
against the influence of those false teachers, who, by their 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &c 335 

subtle distinctions, and endless controversies, had corrupt- 
ted the purity and simplicity of the Gospel ; to press upon 
him, in all his preaching, a constant regard to the interests 
of practical religion ; and to animate him to the greatest 
diligence, fidelity, and zeal, in the discharge of his office. 
The Epistle, therefore, consists of three parts ; viz. : 

Part I. The introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.) 

Part II. Instructions to Timothy how to behave in the 
administration of the church at Ephesus. (ii. — vi. 19.) 

Part III. The Conclusion, (vi. 20, 21.) 



Section XII. — On the Second Epistle to Timothy, 

This Epistle was written during Saint Paul's second 
imprisonment, and not long before his martyrdom, most 
probably in the month of July or August, a. d. 65. 

The immediate design of Saint Paul, in writing this 
Epistle to Timothy, was to apprise him of the circum- 
stances that had befallen him during his second imprison- 
ment at Rome, and to request him to come to him before 
tne ensuing winter. But, being uncertain whether he 
should live so long, he gave him in this letter a variety of 
advices, charges and encouragements for the faithful dis- 
charge of his ministerial functions, with the solemnity 
and affection of a dying parent ; in order that, if he should 
be put to death before Timothy's arrival, the loss might, in 
some measure, be compensated to him by the instructions 
contained in this admirable Epistle. With this view he 
exhorts him to stir up the gift which had been conferred 
upon him ; (2 Tim. i. 2 — 5;) not to be ashamed of the 
testimony of the Lord, nor of Paul's sufferings; (6 — 16;) 
to hold fast the form of sound words, and to guard in- 
violable that good deposit of Gospel doctrine, (i. 13, 14,) 
which he was to commit to faithful men who should be 
able to teach others ; (ii. 1, 2 ;) to endure, with fortitude, 
persecutions for the sake of the Gospel; (ii. 3 — 13 ;) to 
suppress and avoid logomachies ; (14. 23 ;) to approve 
himself a faithful minister of the word ; (15 — 22 ;) and to 
forewarn him of the perils of the last days, in consequence 
of wicked hypocritical seducers and enemies of the truth, 
who, even then, were beginning to rise fa the church. 



338 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 

These Saint Paul admonishes Timothy to flee, giving him 
various cautions against them, (iii.) 

This Epistle affords a beautiful instance of the conso- 
lations which the Gospel imparts to all that truly believe 
it. " Imagine," says a learned commentator of the 18th 
century, (Dr. Benson ;) — " Imagine a pious father, under 
sentence of death for his piety and benevolence to man- 
kind, writing to a dutiful and affectionate son, that he 
might see and embrace him again before he left the world ; 
particularly that he might leave with him his dying com- 
mands, and charge him to live and suffer as he had done : 
and you will have the frame of the apostle's mind, during 
the writing of this whole Epistle." (Pref. to 2 Tim. p. 517. ) 



Section XIII.— On the Epistle to Titos. 

Titus was a Greek, and one of St. Paul's early con- 
verts, who attended him and Barnabas to the first council 
at Jerusalem, a. d. 49, and afterwards on his ensuing cir- 
cuit. (Tit. i. 4. Gal. ii. 1 — 3. Acts xv. 2.) Subsequently, 
he was confidentially employed by the apostle on various 
occasions ; and, as appears from this Epistle, was specially 
appointed by him to regulate the Christian churches in 
that island. Whether Titus ever quitted Crete, we know 
not ; neither have we any certain information concerning 
the time, place, or manner of his death ; but, according to 
ancient ecclesiastical tradition, he lived to the age of 
ninety-four years, and died and was buried in that island. 

This Epistle, the genuineness of which was never ques- 
tioned, is supposed to have been written after St. Paul's 
liberation from his first imprisonment, a. d. 64. Titus 
having been left in Crete to settle the churches in the se- 
veral cities of that island, according to the apostolical 
plan, Saint Paul wrote this Epistle to him, that he might 
discharge his ministry among the Cretans with the 
greater success, and to give him particular instructions 
concerning his behaviour towards the Judaising teachers, 
who endeavoured to pervert the faith, and disturb the 
peace of the Christian church. The Epistle, therefore, 
consists of three parts. 

Part I. The inscription, (ch. i. 1 — 4.) 



*% 



OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &C. 337 

Part II. Instructions to Titus. 1. Concerning the 
ordination of elders, that is, of bishops and deacons, (i. 
5 — 16.) — 2. To accommodate his exhortations to the re- 
spective ages, sexes, and circumstances of those whom he 
was commissioned to instruct ; and, to give the greater 
weight to his instructions, he admonishes him to be an 
example of what he taught, (ii.) — 3. To inculcate obedi- 
ence to the civil magistrate, in opposition to the Jews and 
Judaising teachers, who, being averse from all civil gover- 
nors, except such as were of their own nation, were apt 
to imbue Gentile Christians with a like seditious spirit, as 
if it were an indignity for the people of God to obey an 
idolatrous magistrate ; and also to enforce gentleness to 
all men. (iii. 1 — 7.) — 4. To enforce good works, avoid 
foolish questions, and to shun heretics, (iii. 8 — 11.) 

Part III. An invitation to Titus, to come to the apos- 
tle at Nicopolis, together with various directions, (iii. 
12—15.) 



Section XIV. — On the Epistle to Philemon. 

Philemon was an inhabitant of Colossae, most probably 
a converted Gentile, and it should seem, an opulent and 
benevolent Christian. As it is evident, from the Epistle 
itself, that St. Paul was under confinement when he wrote 
it, and as he expresses (verse 22) his expectation of being 
shortly released, it is probable that it was written during 
his first imprisonment at Rome, toward the end of a. d. 
62, or early in 63 ; and was sent, together with the Epis- 
tles to the Ephesians and Colossians, by Tychicus and 
Onesimus. Though some, formerly, questioned the ge- 
nuineness of this Epistle, the attestations it has received, 
from the earliest antiquity, are deemed sufficient to estab- 
lish that point. The design of this short but beautiful and 
persuasive letter is, to recommend Onesimus, formerly 
the runaway slave of Philemon, (but now a Christian 
convert,) to his master, and induce him to receive him 
again into his house. Whether Philemon pardoned or 
punished Onesimus, we have no information. 



338 EPISTOLARV OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS. 



Section XV.— On the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

The Hebrews, to whom this Epistle is addressed, were 
Jewish Christians, resident in Palestine : and, though con- 
siderable difference of opinion exists concerning its author, 
yet the similarity of its style and expressions to that of 
St. Paul's other Epistles, proves that it was written by 
him in Greek, and not in Hebrew, as some eminent critics 
have supposed. The absence of his name is accounted 
for by the consideration that he withheld it, lest he should 
give umbrage to the Jews. This Epistle was written 
from Rome, not long before he left Italy; viz. : at the end 
of a. d. 62, or early in 63. 

The occasion of writing this Epistle will be sufficiently 
apparent from an attentive review of its contents. The 
Jews did every thing in their power to withdraw their bre- 
thren, who had been converted, from the Christian faith : 
to specious arguments, drawn from the excellency of the 
Jewish religion, they added others more cogent, namely, 
persecution and menaces. The object of the apostle, 
therefore, in writing this letter, is to show the deity of 
Jesus Christ, and the excellency of his Gospel, when com- 
pared with the institutions of Moses ; to prevent the He- 
brews, or Jewish converts, from relapsing into those rites 
and ceremonies which were now abolished ; and to point 
out their total insufficiency, as means of reconciliation and 
atonement. The reasonings are interspersed with nume- 
rous solemn and affectionate warnings and exhortations, 
addressed to different descriptions of persons. At length 
St. Paul shows the nature, efficacy, and triumph of faith, 
by which all the saints in former ages had been accepted 
by God, and enabled to obey, suffer, and perform exploits 
in defence of their holy religion ; from which he takes oc- 
casion to exhort the Hebrew Christians to steadfastness 
and perseverance in the true faith. 

The Epistle to the Hebrews consists of three parts ; 
viz. : 

Part I. demonstrates the Deity of Christ, by the explicit 
declarations of Scripture concerning his superiority to an- 
gels, to Moses, to Aaron, and the whole Jewish priesthood, 
and the typical nature of the Mosaic ritual, (ch. i. — x. 18.) 



ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES 339 

Part IT. comprehends the Application of the preced- 
ing arguments and proofs, (x. 19 — 39, to xiii. 1 — 19,) in 
which the Hebrews are exhorted to steadfastness in the 
faith of Christ, and are encouraged by the examples of 
believers in former ages. (ch. x. 19 — 89, to xiii. 1 — 19.) 

Part III. The conclusion, containing a prayer for the 
Hebrews, and apostolical salutations, (ch. xiii. 20 — 25.) 



CHAPTER III. • 

ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 

Section I. — On the Genuineness and authenticity of the Catholic 

Epistles. 

The Epistles of Saint Paul are followed in the canon 
of the New Testament by seven Epistles, bearing the 
names of the apostles James, Peter, Jude, and John. For 
many centuries, these Epistles have been generally term 
ed Catholic, or General Epistles, because they are not 
addressed to the believers of some particular city or 
country, or to individuals, as Saint Paul's Epistles were, 
but to Christians in general, or to Christians of several 
countries. 

Although the authenticity of the Epistle of James, the 
second of Peter, the Epistle of Jude, and the second and 
third Epistles of John, was questioned by some ancient 
fathers, as well as by some modern writers, yet we have 
every reason to believe that they are the genuine and au- 
thentic productions of the inspired writers whose names 
they bear. The claims to authenticity of these disputed 
Epistles are briefly noticed in the following sections. In- 
deed, the ancient Christians had such good opportunities 
for examining this subject, they exercised so much caution 
in guarding against imposition, and so well founded was 
their judgment concerning the books of the New Testa- 
ment, that no writing which they pronounced genuine has 
yet been proved spurious ; nor have we, at this day, the 
least reason to believe any book to be genuine which 
they rejected. 



340 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 



Section II.— On the General Epistle of James. 

James, the author of this Epistle, was the son of A.- 
pheus, or Cleophas ; and is by St. Paul termed the 
4 Brother," or near relation of our Lord, (Gal. i. 18,19,) 
and is also generally termed " the Less," partly to distin- 
guish him from the other James, and probably, also, be 
cause he was lower in stature. That he was an apostle 
evident from various passages in the New Testament, 
though it does not appear when his designation to this 
office took place. He was honoured by Jesus Christ with 
a separate interview soon after his resurrection. (1 Cor. 
xv. 7.) He was distinguished as one of the apostles of 
the circumcision ; (Acts i. 13 ;) and isoon after the death 
of Stephen, a. d. 34, he seems to have been appointed 
president, or bishop of the Christian church at Jerusalem, 
to have dwelt in that city, and to have presided at the 
council of the apostles, which was convened there a. d. 
49. On account of his distinguished piety and sanctity, 
he <vas surnamed " the Just." He is said to have been 
stoned to death by the Jews, a. d. 62 ; and most learned 
men agree in placing his Epistle in the year 61. Though 
its authenticity has been doubted by some critics, we have 
every reason to believe it genuine, because it is cited by 
two of the apostolic fathers (those who immediately suc- 
ceeded the apostles of Jesus Christ,) and by several suc- 
ceeding writers. But the most decisive proof of its canon- 
ical authority is, that the Epistle of Saint James is inserted 
in the Syriac version of the New Testament, executed at 
the close of the first, or early in the second century, in 
which the second Epistle of Peter, the second and third 
of John, the Epistle of Jude, and the Book of Revelation 
are omitted. 

The persons to whom this Epistle is addressed were He- 
brew Christians, who were in danger of falling into the 
sins which abounded among the Jews of that time. The 
apostle, therefore, cautions them against those sins, and 
comforts them under the persecutions to which they were 
exposed ; and in the course of his epistle he takes occa- 
sion, in chap. ii. 14 — 26, to rectify the notions of the He- 
brew Christians concerning the doctrine of justification 



ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 341 

by faith. For as they were not to be justified by the 
law, but by the method proposed in the Gospel, and that 
method was said to be by faith, without the works of the 
law ; they, some of them weakly, and others, perhaps, 
wilfully, perverted that discovery ; and were for under- 
standing-, by faith, a bare assent to the truth of the Gos- 
pel, without that living, fruitful, and evangelical faith, 
which " worketh by love," and is required of all that 
would be saved. 

The Epistle of Saint James divides itself into three 
parts, exclusive of the Introduction ; (ch. i. 1 ;) viz. : 

Part I. contains Exhortations to patience, humility, and 
suitable dispositions for receiving the word of God aright, 
(ch. i. 2—27.) 

Part II. censures and condemns various sinful prac- 
tices and erroneous notions ; and here their mistaken 
notions of justification by faith without works, are cor- 
rected and illustrated by the examples of Abraham and 
Rahab. (ii. — v. 1—6.) 

Part III. comprises various Exhortations and Cautions. 
/ v . 7—20.) 



Section III. — On the First Genera] Epistle of Peter. 

Simon, surnamed Cephas or Peter, which appellation 
signifies a stone or rock, was the son of Jonas or Jonah, 
and was born at Bethsaida, on the coast of the sea of 
Galilee. He had a brother, called Andrew, and they 
jointly pursued the occupation of fishermen on that lake. 
These two brothers were hearers of John the Baptist; 
from whose express testimony, and their own personal 
conversation with Jesus Christ, they were fully convinced 
that he was the Messiah ; (John i. 35 — 42 ;) and, from 
this time, it is probable that they had frequent intercourse 
with our Saviour, and were witnesses of some of the 
miracles wrought by him, particularly that performed at 
Cana in Galilee. (John ii. 1, 2.) Both Peter and Andrew 
seem to have followed their trade, until Jesus Christ 
called them to " follow him," and promised to make them 
" both fishers of men." (Matt. iv. 18, 19, Mark i. 17. Luke 
v. 10.) From this time they became his companions* 



342 OJN THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 

and when he completed the number of his apostles they 
were included among them. Peter, in particular, was 
honoured with his master's intimacy, together with 
James and John : he is frequently mentioned in the Gos- 
pels, and in the former part of the Acts of the Apostles. 
We know nothing of his personal history after the apostolic 
council, related in Acts xv., (which is the last place where 
he is mentioned by Luke,) until many years afterwards, 
ecclesiastical history informs us, that he received the 
crown of martyrdom at Rome, a.d. 63, during the Ne- 
ronian persecution ; being crucified with his head down- 
wards. The genuineness and authenticity of his first 
Epistle were never disputed : it was addressed to the same 
persecuted Hebrew Christians to whom Saint James and 
Saint Paul respectively wrote their letters. Its design is 
partly to support them under their afflictions and trials, 
and also to instruct them how to behave under persecution : 
and, as their character and conduct were liable to be asper- 
sed and misrepresented by their enemies, they are exhorted 
to lead a holy life, that they might stop the mouths of 
their enemies, put their calumniators to shame, and win 
others over to their religion, by their holy and Christian 
conversation. 

The Epistle may be conveniently divided into four 
sections, exclusive of the introduction and conclusion. 

The Introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.) 

Section I. contains an exhortation to the Jewish Chris- 
tians to persevere steadfastly in the faith, and to maintain a 
holy conversation, amid all their sufferings and persecu- 
tions, (i. 3—25, ii. 1— 10.) 

Section II. comprises exhortations, 1. To a holy con- 
versation in general, (ii. 11, 12.) 2. To a particular dis- 
charge of their several duties, as dutiful subjects to their 
sovereign, (13 — 15,) who at this time was the ferocious 
Nero ; as servants to their masters ; (16 — 25 ;) and as 
husbands to their wives, (iii. 1 — 13.) 

Section III. contains an exhortation to patience, 
submission, and to holiness of life, enforced by consider- 
ing the example of Christ, (iii. 14 — 18,) and various 
other examples and affecting considerations, (iii. 19 — 22, 
iv. 1 — 19.) 

Section IV. Directions to the ministers of the churches, 



ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 343 

and to the people, how to behave towards each other, (v. 
1-11.) 
The Conclusion, (v. 12. 14.) 



Section. IV.— On the Second General Epistle of Peter. 

Though some doubts have been entertained' respecting 1 
the authenticity of this Epistle, which has been received 
as the genuine production of St. Peter ever since the 
fourth century, except by the Syrian church, in which it 
is read as an excellent book, though not of canonical 
authority ; yet we have the most satisfactory evidence of 
its genuineness and authenticity. It is cited or alluded 
to by three apostolic fathers, and by another writer of the 
second century : and though no writer in the third cen- 
tury appears to have cited it, yet ever since the fourth cen- 
tury it has been recognised as a genuine and canonical 
epistle. It was also addressed to Hebrew Christians under 
persecution, and a short time before the apostle's martyr- 
dom, most probably early in the year 65. This Epistle con- 
sists of three parts ; viz. : 

Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.) 

Part II. Having stated the blessings to which God had 
called them, the apostle exhorts the Christians, who had 
received these precious gifts, to endeavour to improve 
in the most substantial graces and virtues. (i. 3 — 21, ii.-) 
He then guards them against scoffers and impostors, who, 
he foretells, would ridicule their expectation of Christ's 
coming, (iii. 1 — 14.) 

Part III. The Conclusion, in which the apostle de- 
cares the agreement of his doctrine with that of St. Paul 
(iii. 15, 16,) and repeats the sum of the Epistle, (iii, 
17, 18.) 



Section V.— On the First General Epistle of Saint John. 

The canonical authority of this Epistle, which ap« 
pears to have been written a.d. 68 or 69, was never ques- 
tioned : independently of historical or external testimony. 



344 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 

we have the strongest internal evidence that this Epistle 
was written by the apostle John, in the very close analogy 
of its sentiments and expressions to those of his Gospel. 
Artless simplicity and benevolence, blended with singular 
modesty and candour, together with a wonderful subli- 
mity of sentiment, are the characteristics of this Epistle, 
which is justly considered a catholic epistle; it being 
written for the use of Christians of every denomination 
and of every country, and designed to guard them against 
erroneous and licentious tenets, and to animate them to 
communion with God and a holy life. This Epistle con- 
sists of six sections, besides the conclusion, which is a 
recapitulation of the whole. 

Sect. I. asserts the true divinity and humanity of Christ, in opposition 
to the false teachers, and urges the union of faith and holiness of life as 
absolutely necessary to enable Christians to enjoy communion with God. 
(ch. i. 1—7.) 

Sect. 2. shows that all have sinned, and explains the doctrine of Christ's 
propitiation, (i. 8 — 10, ii. 1, 2.) Whence the apostle takes occasion to 
illustrate the marks of true faith, viz. : Obeying his commandments, and 
6incere love of the brethren : and shows that the love of the world is incon- 
sistent with the love of God. (ii. 3 — 17.) 

Sect. 3. asserts Jesus to be the same person with Christ, in opposition to 
the false teachers who denied it. (ii. 18 — 29.) 

Sect. 4. On the privileges of true believers, and then- consequent happi- 
ness and duties, and the marks by which they are known to be "the sons 
of God." (iii.) 

Sect. 5. contains criteria by which to distinguish Antichrist and false 
Christians, with an exhortation to brotherly love, (iv.) 

Sect. 6. shows the connexion between faith in Christ, the being born of 
God, love to God and his children, obedience to his commandments, and 
victory over the world ; and that Jesus Christ is truly the Son of God, able 
to save us, and to hear the prayers we make for ourselves and others, (v. 1 
-16.) 

The conclusion, which is a summary of the preceding treatise, shows 
that a sinful life is inconsistent with true Christianity ; asserts the divinity 
of Christ; and cautions believers against idolatry, (v. 17 — 21. 

The preceding is an outline of this admirable Epistle; 
which, being designed to promote right principles of 
doctrine and practical piety in conduct, abounds, more 
than any book of the New Testament, with criteria 
by which Christians may soberly examine themselves 
whether they he in the faith. (2. Cor. xiii. 5.) 

Considerable discussion has taken place respecting the 
genuineness of the clause in 1 John v. 7, 8. which runs 
thus : " in heaven the Father, the Word and the Holy 
Ghost, and these three are one. And there are three 
that bear witness in earth." Of the evidence for and 
against this passage the author has given a copious ab- 



ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 345 

stract in the fourth volume of his larger Introduction 
which does not admit of abridgment. The humble reader 
of the Bible, however, need not entertain any apprehension 
lest any of the truths of the true and proper deity of our 
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ should be weakened. 
Much as has been written on this topic, the question can- 
not yet be considered as decided, while it is known that 
many hundred manuscripts of the New Testament still 
remain uncollated. Even, should it ultimately appear that 
the disputed clause is spurious, its absence will not di- 
minish the weight of irresistible evidence which other 
undisputed passages of holy writ afford to the doctrine of 
the Trinity. " The proofs of our Lord's true and proper 
Godhead remain unshaken — deduced from the prophetic 
descriptions of the Messiah's person in the Old Testament 
— from the ascription to him of the attributes, the works, 
and the homage, which are peculiar to the Deity — and 
from those numerous and important relations, which he 
is affirmed in Scripture to sustain towards his holy and 
universal church, and towards each of its true members."^ 



Section VI.— On the Second and Third Epistles of Saint John. 

Although some doubts were, in the fourth century, 
entertained respecting the canonical authority of these 
Epistles, yet that point has long been considered as deter- 
mined by the fact that these Epistles have been cited by 
Christian writers of the third century, as well as by many 
in the ages immediately following. The similarity of 
style also attests that they are the productions of the same 
author as the first epistle of St. John, who probably wrote 
them about a.d. 68 or 69. 

The second epistle is addressed to an eminent Chris- 
tian matron, the Lady Electa, whom the apostle commends 
for her virtuous and religious education of her children ; 
and who is exhorted to abide in the doctrine of Christ, to 
persevere in the truth, and carefully to avoid the delusions 
of false teachers. But chiefly the apostle beseeches this 

Eclectic Review, vol. v. part i. p. 249. 



I 



346 ON THE CATHOLIC EPIETLES. 

Christian matron to practise the great and indispensable 
commandment of Christian love and charity. 

The third epistle of St. John is addressed to a con- 
verted Gentile, a respectable member of some Christian 
church, called Gaius or Cains : most probably Gaius of 
Corinth, (1 Cor. i. 14,) whom St. Paul calls his " host, 
and the host of the whole church." (Rom. xvi. 23.) The 
scope of this Epistle is to commend his steadfastness in 
the faith, and his general hospitality, especially to the mi- 
nisters of Christ ; to caution him against the ambitious and 
turbulent practices of Diotrephes, and to recommend De- 
metrius to his friendship; referring what he further had 
to say to a personal interview. 



Section VTI.— On the General Epistle of Jude. 

Jude, or Judas, who was surnamed Thaddeus and Leb- 
beus, and was also called the brother of our Lord, (Matt, 
xiii. 55,) was the son of Alpheus, brother of James the 
Less, and one of the twelve apostles. We are not inform- 
ed when, or how he was called to the apostleship ; and 
there is scarcely any mention of him in the New Testa- 
ment, except in the different catalogues of the twelve 
apostles. Although the epistle which bears his name, 
was rejected in the early ages of Christianit}', by some 
persons, we have satisfactory evidences of its authenticity ; 
for it is found in all the ancient catalogues of the sacred 
writings of the New Testament ; it is asserted to be ge- 
nuine by Christian fathers of the third and following 
centuries ; and independently of this external evidence, 
the genuineness of the Epistle of St. Jude is confirmed 
by the subjects discussed in it, which are in every respect 
worthy of an apostle of Jesus Christ. There is great 
similarity between this Epistle and the second chapter of 
St. Peter's second Epistle. Jude addressed his letter to 
all who had embraced the Gospel ; its design is to guard 
them against the false teachers who had begun to insinu- 
ate themselves into the Christian church ; and to contend 
with the utmost earnestness and zeal for the true faith, 
against the dangerous tenets which they disseminated, 




ON THE REVELATION OF ST JOHN. 347 

resolving the whole of Christianity into a speculative be- 
lief and outward profession of the Gospel. And having 
thus cancelled the obligations of morality and personal 
holiness, they taught their disciples to live in all manner of 
licentiousness, and at the same time nattered them with the 
hope of divine favour, and of obtaining eternal life. The 
vile characters of these seducers are further shown, 
and their sentence is denounced ; and the Epistle con- 
cludes with warnings, admonitions, and counsels to be 
lievers how to persevere in faith and godliness them- 
selves, and to rescue others from the snares of the false 
teachers. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ON THE REVELATION OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE. 

It is a remarkable circumstance that the authenticity 
of this book was very generally, if not universally, ac- 
knowledged during the first two centuries, and yet in the 
third century it began to be questioned. This seems to 
have been occasioned by some absurd notions concerning 
the Millenium, which a few well-meaning but fanciful 
expositors grounded on this book ; which notions their 
opponents injudiciously and presumptuously endeavoured 
to discredit, by denying the authority of the book itself. 
So little, however, has this portion of holy writ suffered 
from the ordeal of criticism, to which it has in consequence 
been subjected, that, (as Sir Isaac Newton has long since 
remarked) there is no other book of the New Testament 
so strongly attested, or commented upon so early, as the 
Apocalypse, or Revelation of Saint John ; for, besides the 
strong internal evidence afforded by the similarity of its 
style to that of the apostle's other writings, we have an 
unbroken series of external, or historical testimony, from 
the apostolic age downwards. The revelations contained 
in this book were made to Saint John during his exile in 
the isle of Patmos, toward the end of Domitian's reign, 
though the book containing them could not have been 
published until after his release, on the emperor's death, 



348 OIS THE REVELATION OF 

in the year 96, and after his return to Ephesus. The 
year 96 or 97, may therefore be considered as its true 
date. The scope of this book is twofold : first, generally 
to make known to the apostle " the things which are," 
(i. 19,) that is, the then present state of the Christian 
churches in Asia; and, secondly and principally, to reveal 
to him " the things which shall be hereafter," or the con- 
stitution and fates of the Christian church, through its 
several periods of propagation, corruption and amendment, 
from its beginning to its consummation in glory. The 
Apocalypse, therefore, consists of two principal divisions, 
or parts ; viz. : 

After the title of the book. (ch. i. 1 — 3.) 

Part I. contains the " things which are — " that is, the 
then present state of the church : it includes the Epistles 
to the seven Asiatic Churches of Ephesus, Smyrna, Per- 
gamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. (i. 
9 — 20, ii., iii.) These churches, in the Lydian, or Pro- 
consular Asia, are supposed to have been planted by the 
apostle Paul, and his assistants during their ministry. 4 
They lie nearly in an amphitheatre, and are addressed ac- 
cording to their geographical positions, as may be seen on 
reference to our Map of the Travels of the Apostles. 
These seven Epistles contain excellent precepts and ex- 
hortations, commendations and reproofs, promises and 
threatenings, which are calculated to afford instruction to 
the Universal Church of Christ at all times. 

Part II. contains a Prophecy of " the things which 
shall be hereafter" or the future state of the church 
through succeeding ages, from the time when the apostle 
beheld the apocalyptic visions, to the grand consummation 
of all things, (ch. iv. — xxii.) 

Although many parts of the Apocalypse are necessarily 
obscure to us, because they contain predictions of events 
still future, yet enough is sufficiently clear to convey to us 
the most important religious instruction. The Eevelation 
of St. John is to us precisely what the prophecies of the 
Old Testament were to the Jews, nor is it in any degree 
more inexplicable. " No prophecies in the Eevelation 
can be more clouded with obscurity, than that a child 
chould be born of a pure virgin — that a mortal should 
not see corruption — that a person despised and numbered 



OF THE iNEVV TESTAMENT. 349 

among malefactors should be established for ever on the 
throne of David. Yet still the pious Jew preserved his 
faith entire amidst all these wonderful, and, in appearance, 
contradictory intimations. He looked into the holy books 
in which they were contained, with reverence, and with 
an eye of patient expectation ' waited for the consolation 
of Israel.' We, in the same manner, look up to those 
prophecies of the Apocalypse, for the full consummation 
of the great scheme of the Gospel ; when Christianity 
shall finally prevail over all the corruptions of the world, 
and be universally established in its utmost purity."^ 

* Giloin's Exposition of the New Testament, vol. ii. p. 42a 



351 



APPENDIX. 



No. I. 

TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND ' MONEY, MENTIONED IN 1HB 
BIBLE. 

Chiefly extracted from Dr. Arbuthnot's Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, and Measuiea. 

1. Jewish Weights reduced to English Troy weight. 

Tbs. oz. pen. gr. 
The geran, one twentieth of a shekel - • - - • 12 

Bekah, half a shekel - - - • • • • 0050 

The shekel 10 

The maneh, 60 shekels - - - • - - 2600 

The talent, 50 maneh or 3000 shekels - 125 



2. Scripture Measures of Length reduced to English measure. 



A digit 

4 1 A palm • • 
12 | 3 | A span 


Eng 


feet. Inch. 
0.912 
3.648 
10.944 


24 | 6 | 3 | A cubit - .... 


1 9.888 


96 | 24 1 6 | 2 | A fathom 


3.552 


144 | 36 | 12 | 6 | 1.5 | Ezekiel's reed .... 


10 11.328 


192 | 48 | 16 | 8 | 2 | 1.3 | An Arabian pole 


14 7.10 


1120 | 480 ! 160 | 80 | 20 | 13.3 | 10 1 A schcenus or measuring line 


145 11.04 







3. The long Scripture measures. 

Eng. miles, paces, feet. 

A cubit 1.884 

400 | A st adium or furlong 145 4.6 

2000 1 5 1 A sabbath day's journey • - - 729 3.0 

4000 | 10 | 2 1 An eastern mile 1 403 1.0 

12000 | 30 | 6 | 3 | A parasang 4 153 3.0 

96000 | 240 [48 |24 | 8 | A day's jonrney - - • 33 172 40 



352 



APPENDIX. 



4. Scripture Measures of capacity for liquids, reduced to English wine 
measure. 



Gai. pints. 

ACaph 0.G25 

1.3 ( A log -.- ..... 0.833 

5.3 | 4 | A ca b 3.333 

~16 | 12 | 3 | Ah in .----- - 1 2 

32 | 24 | 6 | 2 | As eah ... g 4 

~96 | 72 | 18 | 6 1 3 j A b ath or ephah - - - - . - 7 4 

"060 | 720 |180 |60 1 20 [ 10 [ A kor or koros, chomer or homer - 75 5 



6. Scripture Measures of capacity for things dry, reduced to English corn 
measure. 



Pecks, gal. 

Agachal 

20 | A cab _---G0 

36 | 1.8 | An omer orgomer - - - - - - 

120 | 6 | 3.3 | A s eah 10 

360 | 18 | 10 | 3 | An ephah - 8 

1800 | 90 | 50 |15 | 5 | A letech 16 

3600 1180 \ 100 1 30 1 10 | 2 1 A chomer, homer, kor, or corps - 32 



pints. 
0.1416 



5.1 
1 
3 


1 



A gerah 



6 Jewish Money reduced to the English standard. 



10 I Abekah 



20 | 2 | A she kel 
1200 | 120 | 50 | A maneh, or mina Hebraica 



60000 J 6000 | 3000 | 60 1 A talent 



A soiidus aureus, or sextula, was worth 
A siclus aureus, or gold shekel, was worth 
A talent of gold was worth 






1.2687 


1 


1.6875 


2 


3.375 


5 14 


0.75 


342 3 


9 


12 





1 16 


6 


5475 






In the preceding table, silver Is valued at 5s. and gold at il. per oz. 



7. Roman Money, mentioned in the New Testament, reduced to the English 
standard. 



A mite, (ACT-rov or Acoaptov) 
A farthing (Ko6pavrns) about 
A penny or denarius (Arivaptop) 
A pound or mina 



1. s. d. Tar. 
0$ 
1| 
7 2 
3 2 6 



APPENDIX 



353 



No. II. 
ATABLE 



OF THE ORDER AND DATES OP THE BOOKS OP THE NEW TESTAMENT, 
AND OP THE PLACES WHERE THEY ARE SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN 
WRTTTEN. 



GOSPELS. 

Matthew (Hebrew) ? 

■ (Greek) S 

Mark .... 
Luke (Gospel) 

(Acts of the Apostles) 

John .... 

II. 



1. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 

PLACES. 

Judaea 
Rome 
Greece 
Ephesus - 

THE EPISTLES OF PAUL 



• between 



A. D. 

37 or 38 

61 

and 63 

63 or 64 

97 or 98 



EPISTLES. 

1 Thessalonians 

2 Thessalonians 

Galatians 

1 Corinthians 
Romans 

2 Corinthians 
Ephesians 
Philippians - 
Colossians 
Philemon 



Hebrews 

1 Timothy- 
Titus 

2 Timothy 



PLACES. 

Corinth 
Corinth 

Corinth 

Ephesus 

Corinth 



< Macedonia 
( (perhaps from Philippi) ' 
Rome 



A. D. 

52 
52 

<s At the close of 52 

( or early in 53 

56 

< About the end of 57 

( or the beginning of 58 



Rome - . j 

Rome 

Rome 

Italy 
(perhaps from Rome) 
Macedonia 
Macedonia 
Rome 



58 

61 

Before the end of 62 

or the beginning of 63 

62 

( About the end of 62 

( or early in 63 

) ; About the end of 62 

\ ( or early in 63 

64 



65 



ni. THE CATHOLIC, OR GENERAL EPISTLES. 



EPISTLES. 

James 

1 Peter - 

2 Peter - 

1 John - 

2 and 3 John 
Jude 



PLACES. 

Judaea - 

Rome 

Rome 
$ Unknown 
( (perhaps Ephesus) 

Ephesus 

Unknown 



A. D. 
61 

64 
about the beginning of 65 

I • \ 68 

S { or early in 69 

I 68 

* I or early in 69 

64 or 65 



The Revelation of St. John 



Ephesus 



96 or 97 



S54 afpendix. 

No. III. 

A TABLE 

©F THE PSALMS, CLASSED ACCORDING TO THEIR SEVERAL SUBJECTS, AND ADAPTED 
TO THE PURPOSES OF PRIVATE DEVOTION. 

I. Prayers. 

1. Prayers for pardon of sin, Psal. vi. xxv. xxxviii. li. cxxx. Psalms 
styled penitential, vi. xxxii. xxxviii. li. cii. cxxx. cxlii. 

2. Prayers, composed when the Psalmist was deprived of an opportu 
nity of the public exercise of religion, Psal. xlii. xliii. lxiii. lxxxiv. 

3. Prayers, in which the Psalmist seems extremely dejected, though not 
totally deprived of consolation, under his afflictions, Psal. xiii. xxii. Ixix. 
lxxvii. lxxxviii. cxliii. 

4. Prayers, in which the Psalmist asks help of God, in consideration 
of his own integrity, and the uprightness of his cause, Psal. vji. xvil 
xxvi. xxxv. 

5. Prayers, expressing the firmest trust and confidence in God under 
afflictions, Psal. iii. xvi. xxvii. xxxi. liv. lvi. lvii. lxi. lxii. lxxi. lxxx*i. 

6. Prayers, composed when the people of God were under affliction or 
persecution, Psal. xliv. lx. lxxiv. lxxix. Ixxx. lxxxiii. lxxxix. xciv. cii. 
cxxiii. cxxxvii. 

7. The following are likewise prayers in time of trouble and affliction, 
Psal. iv. v. xi. xxviii. xli. lv. lix. lxiv. lxx. cix. cxx. cxl. cxli. cxlii 

8. Prayers of intercession, Psal. xx. Ixvii. cxxii. cxxxii. cxliv. 

II. Psalms of Thanksgiving. 

1. Thanksgivings for Mercies vouchsafed to particular persons, Psal. 
ix. xviii. xxi. xxx. xxxfv. xl. lxxv. ciii. cviii. cxvi. cxviii. cxxxviii. cxliv. 

2. Thanksgivings for mercies vouchsafed to the Israelites in general, 
Psal. xlvi. xlviii. lxv. lxvi. lxviii. lxxvi. lxxxi. lxxxv. xcviii. cv. cxxiv. 
cxxvi. cxxix. cxxxv. cxxxvi. cxlix. 

III. Psalms of Praise and Adoration, displayiyig the Attributes of God. 

1. General acknowledgments of God's goodness and mercy, andparticu- 
Iarly his care and protection of good men, Psal. xxiii. xxxiv. xxxvi. xci. 
c. ciii. cvii. cxvii. cxxi. cxlv. cxlvi. 

2. Psalms displaying the power, majesty, glory, and other attributes of 
the Divine Being, Psal. viii. xix. xxiv. xxix. xxxiii. xlvii. 1. lxv. lxvi. 
lxxvi. lxxvii. xciii. xcv. xcvi. xcvii. xcix. civ. cxi. cxiii. cxiv. cxv. 
cxxxiv. cxxxix. cxlvii. cxlviii. cl. 

TV. Instructive Psalms. 

1. The different characters of good and bad men : the happiness of the 
one, and the misery of the other : are represented in the following psalms. 
1 v. vii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiv. xv. xvii. xxiv. xxv. xxxii. xxxiv. xxxvi. xxxvii 
1. Iii. liii. lviii. lxxiii. lxxv. lxxxiv. xci. xcii. xciv. cxii. cxix. cxxi. cxxv 
cxxvii. cxxviii. cxxxiii. 

2. The excellence of God's laws, Psal. xix. cxix. 

3. The vanity of human life, Psal. xxxix. xlix. xc. 

4. Advice to magistrates, Psal. lxxxii. ci. 

5. The virtue of humility, Psal. cxxxi. 

V. Psalms more eminently and directly Prophetical. 
Psal. ii. xvi. xxii. xl. xlv. lxviii. lxxii. Ixxxvii. ex. cxviii. 

VI. Historical Psalms. 
Psal. lxxviii. cv. cvi. 



APPENDIX. 355 

No. IV. 
A TABLE, 

OR L18T, OF SELECT CHAPTERS OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES, 

Forming an Epitome of the Bible, and adapted to Family, or Private 
Reading. 

tCjr* The following arrangement of Chapters from the Sacred Scrip- 
tures is not offered with a view to supersede a regular and orderly peru- 
sal of the word of God. Having devoted a considerable portion of his life 
to the preparation of his larger " Introduction to the Study and Knowledge 
of the" entire "Holy Scriptures," the author trusts that he shall be acquit- 
ted of such an intention. The present selection of chapters is offered, in 
consequence of a wish which he has often heard expressed, that some list were 
extant, which should, in a short compass, present the most important portions 
of the sacred volume to the attention of individuals possessing but little 
leisure to make a selection for themselves, and who were desirous of be- 
coming acquainted with the leading facts, doctrines, and precepts of the 
Bible. The author will rejoice if his attempt shall lead any one to a more 
frequent and attentive study of that holy volume. To any of his readers, 
who may be desirous of perusing the entire Scriptures in chronological 
order, (and who may be able to purchase them,) he can with confidence 
recommend the Rev. George Townsend's four volumes on the Harmony of 
the Old and New Testaments, 



Part I.— A Selection of Chapters, forming a Series of the Sacred History 
of the Old Testament. 

GENESIS. 

Section 

1. An Account of the Origin of the World and of the six days' Creation, 

chap i., ii. 1—6. 

2. A more particular Account of the Creation of Man. The Garden of 

Eden described. The Formation of Woman and Institution of Mar- 
riage, chap. ii. 7 — 24. 

3. The Fail of Man. The first Promise of the Redeemer. Expulsion of 

Adam and Eve from Paradise, chap. ii. 25, iii. 

4. The Birth of Cain and Abel. Murder of Abel. History of other de- 

scendants of Adam to Lamech, chap. iv. 

5. Genealogy of the Patriarchs from Adam to Noah, chap. v. 

6. The Increase of Wickedness in the World. The Deluge threatened. 

Noah commanded to prepare the Ark, chap. vi. 

7. Noah and his Family enter the Ark. Account of the Destruction of 

the former World by the Deluge, chap. vii. 

8. The Waters subside. Noah and his Family quit the Ark. History of 

the Renovation of the World, chap. viii. 

9. The Covenant of God with Noah. His intoxication, chap. ix. 

10. The erection of the Tower of Babel attempted. The confusion of 

Tongues, and the dispersion of Mankind, chap. xi. 

11. The call of Abraham. He goes into Egypt, chap. xii. 

12. Abraham and Lot return from Egypt and separate, chap. xiii. 



35b APPENDIX. 

Section 

13. Abraham blessed by Melchizedek, King of Salem, chap. xiv. 

14. God renews his promises to Abraham, chap. xvii. 

15. Three Angels visit Abraham. His Intercession for Sodom and Go- 

morrah, chap, xviii. 

16. The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, chap. xix. 1 — 26. 

17. Abraham commanded to sacrifice his only Son, Isaac. He prepares 

to obey, and receives the divine benediction, chap. xxii. 1 — 19. 

18. Isaac marries Rebekah, chap. xxiv. 

19. The Birth of Esau and Jacob. Esau despises his birthright, chap. 

xxv. 20—34. 

20. The Promise of God to Isaac, chap. xxvi. 1 — 6. 

21. Jacob surreptitiously obtains Isaac's blessing, chap, xxvii. 1 — 40. 

22. Esau menaces Jacob. The marriage of Esau. Jacob's vision at 

Beth-el, and his vow, chap, xxvii. 41 — 46, xxviii. 

23. Jacob entertained by Laban. His Marriage, chap. xxix. 

24. Joseph sold into Egypt, chap, xxxvii. 

25. The Imprisonment of Joseph by Potiphar, chap, xxxix. 

26. Joseph, in prison, interprets the dreams of Pharaoh's chief Baker and 

chief Butler, chap. xl. 

27. The deliverance of Joseph. His advancement in the court of Pha- 

raoh, chap. xli. 

28. The first journey of Joseph's Brethren into Egypt, to buy corn, chap. 

xlii. 

29. Jacob persuaded to send Benjamin into Egypt. Joseph entertains his 

Brethren, chap, xliii. 

30. Joseph makes himself known to his Brethren, chap, xliv., xlv. 

31. Jacob settles in Egypt with his family, chap. xlvi. 

32. Joseph presents certain of his Brethren unto Pharaoh. — His admi- 

nistration in Egypt, chap, xlvii. 1 — 26. 

33. Jacob's last days. — He is visited by Joseph, whose children he 

blesses, chap, xlvii. 27 — 31, xlviii. 

34. Jacob's Prophetic Benediction of his Children, chap. xlix. 

35. The Burial of Jacob. Death and Burial of Joseph, chap. I. 



36. The Oppression of the Children of Israel by Rarneses Miamoun, the 

King who knew neither Joseph nor his services, chap. i. 

37. The Birth and Preservation of Moses. His flight into Midian, chap. 

ii. 

38. God appears unto Moses, and calls him to be the deliverer of the Is- 

raelites, chap, iii., iv. 

39. Moses and Aaron apply to Pharaoh, in the name of God, and on be- 

half of the Israelites, chap. v. 

40. God renews his promise of deliverance to the Israelites, chap. vi. 

1—12. 

41. The interview of Moses with Pharaoh, The first plague, chap. vii. 

42. Pharaoh hardens his heart. The second, third, and fourth plagues, 

chap. viii. 

43. The fifth, sixth, and seventh plagues, chap. ix. 

44. The eighth and ninth plagues, chap. x. 

45. The Death of the First Born threatened, chap. xi. 

46. The Institution of the Passover. The Departure of Israel from Egypt, 

chap. xii. 

47. The Israelites' miraculous passage of the Red Sea. Pharaoh and his 

army drowned, chap. xiv. 

48. The Song of Moses, for the deliverance of the Israelites. The bitter 

waters of Marah sweetened, chap. xv. 

49. The Israelites miraculously fed in the Desert, chap. xvi. 

60. Their murmurs at Rephidim. Water miraculously given them from 
the rock at Horeb, chap. xvii. 



APPENDIX. 357 

Section 

51. The Arrival of Moses' wife and children with Jethro. The counsel 

given by the latter to Moses, chap, xviii. 

52. The preparation of the Israelites for renewing their covenant with 

God, chap. xix. 

53. The Promulgation of the Moral Law, chap. xx. 

54. Moses called to ascend Mount Sinai. The Covenant ratified, chap. 

xx iv. 

55. The people request Aaron to make the Golden Calf. The Punish- 

ment of the Idolaters, chap, xxxii. 

56. Moses removes his tent from the camp. The people mourn, chap. 

xxxiii. 

57. The Tables of the Law renewed. Various instructions given to 

Moses, chap, xxxiv. 

NUMBERS. 

58. Moses despatches Spies into the land of Canaan, chap. xiil. 

59. The murmurs of the people. Joshua's attempt to pacify them, chap. 

xiv. 

60. The Rebellion and Punishment of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, and 

their associates, chap. xvi. 

DEUTERONOMY. 

61. Discourse of Moses to the Israelites, relating the events that took 

place in the wilderness from their leaving Mount Horeb, until their 
arrival at Kadesh, chap. i. 

62. Renewal of the Covenant with the People of Israel, chap. xxix. 

63. Promises of Pardon to the Penitent. Good and evil set before them, 

chap. xxx. 

64. Joshua appointed to be the successor of Moses. A solemn charge 

given to him, chap. xxxi. 1 — 27. 

65. The people convened to hear the prophetical and historical Ode of 

Moses, chap. xxxi. 28 — 30. xxxii. 

66. Moses' Prophetic Blessing of the twelve Tribes. Their peculiar feli- 

city and privilege in having the Lord for their God and Protector, 
chap, xxxiii. 

67. The Death and Burial of Moses, chap, xxxiv. 



68. The Call and Appointment of Joshua to be Captain-General of the 

people of God, chap. i. 

69. The Miraculous Passage of the Israelites over Jordan, and the setting 

up of twelve memorial stones, chap, hi., iv. 

70. Joshua, stricken in years, gives his first charge to the people of 

Israel, chap, xxiii. 

71. Joshua's second charge to the Israelites, chap. xxiv. 

JUDGES. 

72. The people chastised for their sins. Judges raised up. Their admi- 

nistration, chap, ii, 

1 SAMUEL. 

-73. The Birth of Samuel, chap. i. 

74. The Hymn of Hannah. Depraved conduct of Eli's Sons, chap. 11. 

75. The call of Samuel, and his establishment in the Prophetic Office, 

chap. iii. 

76. The Israelites demand a king, chap. viii. 

77. Saul anointed king, chap, ix., x. 

78. Saul rejected by God, chap. xiii. 



358 APPENDIX. 

Section 

79. The anointing of David to be king over Israel, chap. xvi. 

80. David's Combat and Victory over Goliath, chap. xvii. 1—54. 

81. Saul's Life in David's power, in the cave at Engedi, who inagnant- 

mously spares it, chap. xxiv. 

82. David spares the Life of Saul a second time, chap. xxvi. 

83. The suicide of Saul, after his total discomfiture by the Philistines, 

chap. xxxi. 

2 SAMUEL. 

84. David anointed king over Israel. His victories, chap. v. 

85. The Bringing up of the Ark to Jerusalem, and the Divine Promises 

made to him, chap, vi., vii. 

86. The Sin and Repentance of David, chap, xi., xii. 

87. David's Psalm of Praise, on a general review of the mercies of his 

life, and of the many deliverances he had experienced, chap. xxii. 

I KINGS. 

88. The death of David, and Accession of Solomon, chap. li. 

89. The commencement of Solomon's Reign, chap. iii. 

90. The Dedication of the Temple, and the Sublime Prayer of Solomon 

on that occasion, chap. viii. 

91. Divine Vision to Solomon. His Opulence and Commerce, chap, ix. 

92. The death of Solomon, and accession of Rehoboam, chap. xi. 

93. The Revolt of the Ten Tribes under Jeroboam, who forms the King- 

dom of Israel, chap. xii. 

94. The Reigns of R«hoboam king of Judah, and of Jeroboam king of 

Israel, chap. xiv. 

95. The Reign of Ahab, against whom Elijah prophesieth. Miracles 

wrought by the Prophet, chap. xvii. 

96. The Prophets of Baal slain, chap, xviii. 

97. Elijah's Flight to Horeb. Transactions there, chap. xix. 

2 KINGS. 

98. The translation of Elijah, chap. ii. 

99. Miracles wrought by his successor, Elisha, chap. iv. 

100. The Healing of Naaman, and punishment of Gehazi, chap. v. 

101. Miracle wrought by Elisha. The Syrian army smitten with blindness. 

chap. vi. 

102. Hoshea, the last king of Israel, dethroned by Shalmaneser, and the 

Israelites carried captive into Assyria, chap. xvi. 

103. The reign of Hezekiah. His danger from Sennacherib's besieging 

Jerusalem, chap. xvii. 

104. The deliverance of Hezekiah. chap xix. 

105. The pious reign of Josiah, chap, xxii., xxiii. 1 — 30. 

106. The reigns of Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah, the 

last kings of Judah, chap, xxiii. 31 — 37. xxiv. 

107. Rebellion of Zedekiah against Nebuchadnezzar. Jerusalem taken; 

the temple burnt ; and the Jews carried into captivity to Babylon 
chap. xxv. 



108. Edict of Cyrus, permitting the Jews to return into Judsea and rebuilt 

the temple, chap. i. 

109. The building of the second temple commenced, but hindered by tha 

Samaritans, chap. iii. iv. 

110. Edict of Darius in favour of the Jews. The temple finished and de- 

dicated, chap, v., vi. 



APPENDIX. 359 



Section 

111. Haman, prime minister of Ahasuerus, from motives of hatred to. 

wards Mordecai, forms a plan to massacre the Jews throughout 
Persia, chap. iii. 

112. Esther, the niece of Mordecai, apprises the king of Hainan's sangui- 

nary design, chap. vii. 

113. The Advancement of Mordecai. The deliverance of the Jews, chap. 

viii., ix„ x. 

EZRA. 

114. Ezra the priest returns to Jerusalem with a commission from Arta 

xerxes Longimanus, king of Persia, in favour of the Jews, chap. vii. 

NEHEMIAH. 

115. Departure of Nehemiah for Jerusalem, with a royal commission, in 

favour of the Jews, chap. ii. 

116. Jerusalem and the Temple being rebuilt, Ezra and Nehemiah con 

vene the people, to hear the law read, chap. viii. 



Part II. — A Selection of Chapters, forming a series of the Gospel History 

Section 

1. The Birth of John the Baptist and of Jesus Christ announced. Luke 

i. 1—56. 

2. John the Baptist born. The prophetic hymn of Zacharias, Luke i. 

57—80. 

3. The Nativity and Infancy of Jesus Christ, Luke ii. 

4. The Arrival of the Wise Men from the East to adore Jesus Christ, 

Matt. ii. 

5. The Ministry of John the Baptist. The Baptism of Christ, Luke iii. 

6. The Temptation of Jesus Christ. He beginneth to preach, Matt. iv. 

1—17. 

6. Christ preacheth at Nazareth. Various Miracles wrought by Christ. 

Luke iv. 14—44. 

7. Testimony of John the Baptist to Jesus Christ, John i. 

8. Christ's Miracle at Cana in Galilee, John ii. 

9. His Conversation with Nicodemus, John iii. 

10. His Discourse with the Woman of Samaria, John iv. 

11. Peter, James, John, and Matthew become Christ's stated disciples, 

Luke v. 

12. Jesus Christ heals a Paralytic at the Pool of Bethesda, John v. 

13. The twelve Apostles appointed,. Luke vi. 

14. Christ's Sermon on the Mount, Matt. v. — vii. 

§ 1. Who only are truly happy. The duty of Christians to ba 
exemplary, Matt. v. 1 — 16. 

§ 2. The design of Christ's coming ; viz. : to ratify the divine 
law, v. 17 — 20, which had been much impaired by the tradi- 
tions of the Pharisees. 1. In respect of its extent: this is 
exemplified in what concerns Murder, 21—26 ; Adultery, 27 — 
30; Divorce, 31, 32; Oaths, 33—37; Retaliation, 38—42; the 
Love of our Neighbour, 43 — 48. 2. In respect op motive: 
where the end is applause, the virtue is destroyed. This is ex- 
emplified in Almsgiving, vi. 1 — 4; Prayer, 5 — 15; and FasU 
ing, 16—18. 

5 3. Heavenly Mindedness enforced by various consideration. 1 - 
vi. 19—34. 



360 APPENDIX. 

Section 

§ 4. Cautions against rash judgments of others, vii. 1 — 5; various 
admonitions, 6 — 14; warnings against /atee teachers, who are 
commoniy known by their actions, 15 — 20; the wisdom of ad- 
ding practice to knowledge, and the insignificancy of the latter 
without the former. 21 — 29. 
!5. Jesus Christ heals the Centurion's Servant and restores to life the 
Widow's Son atls'ain, Luke vii. 1 — 17. 

16. Christ's reply to the inquiry of John the Baptist's Disciples, and his 

discourse to the people concerning John, Luke vii. IS — 35. 

17. Christ pardons a woman who had been a sinner, Luke vii. 36 — 50. 

18. The parable of the Sower. Who are Christ's Disciples, Luke viii. 

1—21. 

19. Christ stills a tempest by his command, and heals a demoniac at Ga- 

dara, Luke viii. 22—39. 

20. Christ cures an issue of blood, and raises the daughter of Jairus to life, 

Luke viii. 40 — 56. 

21. Christ heals a paralytic and two blind men, Matt. ix. 

22. The Mission of the Apostles. Five thousand men miraculously fed, 

Luke ix. 1—27. 

23. Christ feedeth five thousand men. Peter's confession, John vi. 

24. Christ performs various miracles, Matt. xv. 

25. Christ foretells his death and resurrection, Matt. xvi. 

26. The transfiguration of Jesus Christ, and the miracle which followed 

it, Matt. xvii. 

27. The Mission of the Seventy Disciples. Luke x. 1 — 24. 

23. The Parable of the benevolent Samaritan. Christ visits Martha and 
Mary, Luke x. 25 — 42. 

29. Jesus goes to Jerusalem to the Least of Tabernacles, John vii. 

30. Jesus Christ teaches in the Temple, John viii. 

31. Christ heals a man who had "been born blind, John ix, 

32. Instructions concerning Prayer. The Scribes and Pharisees reproved. 

Luke xi. 

33. Cautions against hypocrisy. The Care of Divine Providence, Luke 

xii. 1—34. 

34. Admonition to be prepared for Death. Luke xii. 35 — 18. 

35. Christ reproacheth the people for not knowing the time of Messiah's 

coming. Common reason sufficient to teach men repentance. Luke 
xii. 49—59. 
6. Design of God's Judgments. An infirm woman healed. Parable of 
the Mustard-seed, which prophetically represents the spread of the 
Gospel, Lukexiii. 1 — 20. 

37. Christ's journey to Jerusalem to keep the Feast of Dedication. His 

lamentation over the judicial blindness of Jerusalem, Luke xiii. 
22—35. 

38. A dropsical man healed on the Sabbath-day. The parable of the 

great Supper, Luke xiv. 1 — 24. 

39. Courage and perseverance shown to be requisite in a true Christian. 

The unprofitableness of an unsound Christian, Luke xiv. 25 — 35. 

40. Christ illustrates the joy of the angels in heaven over repenting Sin- 

ners, by the Parables, 1. Of the lost sheep, Luke xv. 1 — 7 ; 2. Of the 
lost piece of money, 8 — 10 ; and, 3. Of the Prodigal Son, 11 — 32. 

41. Parable of the Unjust Steward. The Pharisees reproved for their 

hypocrisy and covetousness, Luke xvi. 1 — IS. 

42. The Parable of the rich man and Lazarus, Luke xvi. 19 — 31. 

43. The duty of not giving offence. Ten lepers healed, Luke xvii. 1 — 19. 

44. Christ discourses concerning his second coming. Luke xvii. 20 — 37. 

45. Encouragement to perseverance in prayer, illustrated by the parable 

of the Importunate Widow. Parable of the Pharisee and Publican, 
or Tax-gatherer, Luke xviii. 1 — 14. 
46 Christ encourages young children to be brought to him ; again fore- 
tells his death \ and cures a blind man near Jericho. Luke xviii. 
15—42 



APPENDIX. 361 

Section 

47. Parable of the Labourers in the vineyard. Humility inculcated. 

Two blind men receive their sight, Matt. xx. 

48. The Resurrection of Lazarus, John xi. 41 — 44. 

49. Account of the different effects produced by this miracle on the Jews, 

John xi. 45—57, xii. 1 — 1 1. 

50. The Conversion of Zaccheus, Luke xix. 1 — 10. 

51 . Parable of the nobleman going into a distant country to receive a 

kingdom, Luke xix. 1] — 28. 

52. Christ's lowly, yet triumphal entry into Jerusalem. He weeps ovet 

her impending calamities, and expels the traders out of the temple, 
where he teaches the people, Luke xix. 29 — 48. 

53. Christ confutes the chief-priests, scribes, and elders, 1; By a question 

concerning the baptism of John, Luke xx. 1 — 8 ; 2. By the Parable 
of the Labourers in the vineyard, 9 — 19; and, 3. By showing the 
lawfulness of paying tribute unto Caesar, 20 — 26. 

54. The Sadducees and Scribes severally confuted. The Charity of a 

poor widow commended, Luke xx. 27 — 47, xxi. 1 — 4. 

55. Christ discourses on the destruction of the temple ; and enforces the 

duty of watchfulness, Luke xxi. 5 — 38. 

56. Christ's Prophetic Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem, 

and the end of the World, Matt. xxiv. 

57. Parables of the Ten Virgins, and of the Talents. The last Judgment 

described, Matt. xxv. 

58. Christ washes his apostle's feet; predicts the treachery of Judas, and 

Peter's denial, John xiii. 

59. Christ celebrates the passover; institutes the Lord's Supper; and 

again warns Peter that he would deny him, Luke xxii. 1 — 38. 

60. Christ's last discourse with his disciples, John xiv. — xvi. 

61. Christ's last prayer for his disciples, and for all who in future ages 

should believe in him, John xvii. 

62. Judas betrays Jesus; who retires to the garden of Gethsemane. 

Peter's denial of Christ, who is arraigned before Pilate, John xviii. 

63. Christ condemned and crucified, Luke xxiii. 

64. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ, Matt, xxviii. 1 — 15. 

65. Christ appears to two disciples on their way to Emmaus, Luke xxiv. 

13 — 35 ; and also to the assembled disciples, 36—48. The Ascension 
of Christ, 49—53. 

THE ACTS OP THE APOSTLES. 

66. The transactions before and after Christ's ascension into heaven. 

Matthias elected an apostle, chap. i. 

67. The Descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles on the day of Pen- 

tecost, and Peter's discourse to the people in consequence of it, 
chap. ii. 

68. Peter and John heal a lame man. Peter's discourse to the people, 

char, iii. 

69. A great multitude converted by the preaching of Peter. The apos- 

t'es are put in prison, and released, chap. iv. 1 — 32. 

70. Unanimity of the first Christians; their charity. Hypocrisy and 

punishment of Ananias and Sapphira, chap. iv. 33—37, v. 1—11, 
,1. The apostles being imprisoned, are released by an angel. Gamaliel's 
counsel concerning them, chap. v. 12 — 42. 

72. Seven persons chosen to superintend the distribution of alms, chap. 

vi. 1—8. 

73. Stephen falsely accused. His discourse. He is condemned and 

stoned, chap. vi. 9 — 15, to viii. I, first clause of the verse. 

74. Persecution of the Christians at Jerusalem. A church planted at 

Samaria, chap. viii. 1, and at that time, &c. 2 — 25. 

75. Conversion of the Ethiopian Eunuch, chap. viii. 26 — 40 

76. Conversion, baptism, and first preaching of Saint Paul, chap. Ix, 

1—31. 



3G2 APPENDIX. 

Section 

77. Peter heals ^Eneas, and raises Dorcas to life, chap. ix. 32. 43. 

78. Peter instructed by a vision concerning the calling of the Gentiles. 

The conversation of Cornelius and his family, chap, x., xi. 1 — 18. 

79. The first Gentile Church founded at Antioch, chap. xi. 19 — 30. 

80. The apostle James put to death by Herod Agrippa. His miserable 

death, chap. xii. 

81. The planting of several churches in the isle of Cyprus, at Perga, in 

Pamphilia, and Antioch, in Pisidia, chap. xiii. 

82. The gospel preached at Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. Paul returns to 

Antioch, chap. xiv. 

83. Discussion of the question by the apostles at Jerusalem, concerning 

the necessity of circumcision, and observing the law. Their letter 
to the churches on this subject, chap. xv. 1 — 35. 

84. Paul's second departure from Antioch. He preaches the gospel in 

various countries, particularly at Philippi, in Macedonia. The con- 
version of the Philippian gaoler, chap. xv. 36 — 41, xvi. 

85. The journeys and apostolical labours of Paul, and his associates, at 

Thessalonica, Berea, and Athens. His masterly apology before the 
court of the Areopagites, chap. xvii. 

86. Paul's journey to Corinth, and thence to Antioch, chap, xviii. 1 — 22. 

87. Paul's third departure from Antioch. Consequences of his preaching 

at Ephesus, chap, xviii. 23 — 28, xix. 

88. The labours of Paul in Greece and Asia Minor. His journey toward 

Jerusalem, chap. xx. 

89. On his arrival at Jerusalem Paul relates the fruits of his ministry 

chap. xxi. 

90. The Jews demanded the death of Paul, who pleads his privilege as a 

Roman citizen, chap. xxii. 

91. Paul pleads his cause before the council. A conspiracy is formed 

against his life. He is sent to Caesarea, chap, xxiii. 

92. Paul accused before Felix, pleads his own cause. Effects of his 

preaching upon the conscience of Felix, chap. xxiv. 

93. Paul pleads his cause before Festus, the successor of Felix. His in- 

nocence admitted by the Roman Governor, chap, xxv. 

94. Paul's defence before king Agrippa, chap. xxvi. 

95. Narrative of Paul's Voyage from Csesarea. He is shipwrecked on 

the isle of Malta, chap, xxvii. 
95. His voyage from Malta to Rome, where he preaches the Gospel to 
the Jews, and resides for two years, chap, xxviii. 



Part III. — Select Chapters taken from the Apostolic Epistles. 

Section 

1. The blessed consequences of our Justification by Jesus Christ, Rom. v. 

2. Eulogium and Description of Charity, 1 Cor. xiii. 

3. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ. — Victory over death and sin 

1 Cor. xv. 

4. A Future Life.— The love of Christ, 2 Cor. v. 

5. Spiritual blessings in Christ Jesus, Eph. i. 

6. Various Duties of the Christian Life, Eph. iv. — vi. 

7. Exhortations to Christian Holiness, Phil. iv. 

8. The excellence of Godliness, 1 Tim. vi. 

9. The supreme Deity and Dignity of Jesus Christ, his superiority to 

angels, and our duty in consequence, Heb. i., ii. 1 — 4. 

10. Exhortations to perseverance, Heb. xii. 

11. Exhortations and Cautions, James v 



APPENDIX. * 3(53 

Section 

12. Exhortation to steadfastness in the faith of Christ, from a considera- 

tion of the peculiar blessings and privileges conferred by Christ, 
1 Pet. i., ii. 1—10. 

13. Exhortation to various civil and relative duties, 1 Pet. ii. 1 1— 25, 

iii. 1—13. 
11. The hope and conduct of a Christian, 2 Pet. i. 

15. The second advent of Christ, 2 Pet. iii. 

16. The Love of God opposed to that of the world, 1 John iii. 

17. Exhortation to Brotherly Love, 1 John iv. 



No, V. 



List, comprising the most necessary works upon the Holy Scrip- 
tures, which the author trusts will be found sufficient for all ordi- 
nary purposes of study. 

D'Allemand's Edition of the Hebrew Bible. 

Rev. E. Valpy's Edition of the Greek Testament, with Notes. In 
3 vols. 8vo. 

Vetus Testamentum Grsecum (Valpy's Edition,) 8vo. 

Holy Bible, with marginal renderings and references, 8vo. 

Rev. Geo. Townsend's Harmony of the Old Testament, 2 vols. 8vo. 

■ r-Harmony of the New Testament, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scrip- 
tures. By the author of this volume, 4 vols. 8vo. 

Professor Lee's Lectures on the Hebrew Language, 8vo. ; or, 

Mr. Yeates's Hebrew Grammar, 8vo. 

Gibb's Hebrew and English Lexicon, 8vo ; or, 

Parkhurst's Hebrew and English Lexicon, 8vo. 

■ Greek Lexicon to the New Testament, edited by the 

Rev. H. J. Rose. 

Winer's Greek Grammar of the New Testament, 8vo. 

Robinson's Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament, 
8vo. ; or, 

Wahl's Clavis Philologica Novi Testament! 

Rev. Dr. D'Oyly's and Bp. Mant's Commentary on the Bible, 3 vols, 
4to. 

Rev. Matthew Henry's, or Rev. Tho. Scott's Commentary on the 
Bible, each 6 vols. 4to., and Rev. W. Burkitt's Expository Notes, 
&c. on the New Testament, will be found particularly useful for 
practical and expository study. 

Bp. Home's Commentary on the Psalms, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Rev. Messrs. Elsley's and Slade's Annotations on the New Testa- 
ment, 5 vols. 8vo. 

Rev. iS. T. Bloomfield's Recensio Synoptica Annotationis Sacrae, &c. 
7 vols. 8vo. 

Rev. Dr. Doddridge's Family Expositor, 6 vols. 8vo. 

Rev. Dr. Robinson's Biblical and Ecclesiastical Dictionary, 8vo. 

Dr. Harris's Natural History of the Bible, 8vo. 

Rev. Geo. Holden's Testimonies to the Deity of Christ, 8vo. 



3(54 Ai»PfcN!>«. 

Rev. Dr. J. P. Smith's Scripture Testimony to the Messiah, 3 vola 

8vo. 
Rev. J. Butterworth's Concordance, 8vo. 
Bp. Gastrell's Christian Institutes, 12mo. ; or, 
Mr. Warden's System of Revealed Religion, 2 vols. 8vo. 
Bp. Newton's Dissertations on the Prophecies, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Should more extended commentaries be required than those here 
specified, the reader is referred to the works of Dr. A. Clarke, and 
others, which are enumerated in the Appendix to Vol. II. of the au- 
thor's larger Introduction. 



No. VI. 



A CONCISE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL EPOCHS MEN- 
TIONED IN THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 

I. Old Testament History. 

B C. 

The Creation of the World 4004 

Noah born 2948 

Peleg, (son of Heber.) — Division of the earth into famihes and 

languages --------- 2247 

Abraham born -------- 1996 

CaU of Abraham 1921 

Ishmael, son of Abraham and Hagar, born - - - 1910 

Destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah, and the cities of the plain 1898 

Covenant with Abraham renewed ----- 1898 

Birth of Isaac - 1871 

Isaac marries Rebekah ------- 1856 

Jacob marries Leah and Rachel ----- 1759 

Joseph sold into Egypt ------- 1728 

Jacob and his family go into Egypt ----- 1706 

Death of Jacob " 1689 

Death of Joseph - 1635 

A Revolution in Egypt.— The Israelites persecuted - - 1577 

Birth of Moses 1571 

The Exodus from Egypt 1491 

The Delivery of the Law 1490 

The death of Moses ; the entrance of the Israelites into the 

promised land, under Joshua - - - - - 1451 
The Administration of the Elders and Judges, after the death 

of Joshua 1443, &c. 

Saul appointed and consecrated king . - - - 1095 

The accession of David to the throne - 1055 

The reign of Solomon alone - - - - - - 1014 

The dedication of the temple 1004 

Accession of Rehoboam, and the secession of the ten tribes 

under Jeroboam - - 975 







APPENDIX. 3(35 


Kings of Israel for 


264 Years. 


Kings ofJudahfor 388 Years. 






B.C. 


B.C. 


Jeroboam I. - 




975 


Rehoboam - - - 975 
Jerusalem taken by Shishak 
king of Egypt. The Tem- 
ple plundered - - 975 


Nadab - 


- 


954 


Abijah -..-- 958 


Baasha 


- 


953 


Asa 955 



Elah --,/-- 930 
Zimri conspires against Elah, 

and reigns seven days at 

Tirza 
Omri 929 



Ahab - 


918 


Jehoshaphat - 


914 


Ahaziah - 


897 






Jehoram, or Joram - , 


896 


Joram - 


889 


Jehu - - - - 


884 


Ahaziah 


885 






Athaliah 


884 


Jehoahaz - 


856 


Amaziah 


838 


Joash - 


839 






Jeroboam 11. 


823 


Uzziah, or Azariah 


809 


An interregnum of eleven years 






begins - 


784 






Zachariah son of Jeroboam 


773 






Shallum reigned one month 


772 






And slain by Menahem - 


770 






Pekahiah ... 


760 


Uzziah 




Pekah - 


758 


Jotham 


757 


Anarchy for nine years - 


738 


Ahaz 


741 


Hoshea - 


729 


Hezekiah 


726 


End of the kingdom of Israel, 






after it had subsisted two 






hundred and fifty-four years. 







Kings of Judah alone. 

B C 

Manasseh - - 697 

Amon ---------- 642 

Josiah ---------- 640 

Jehoaz, son of Josiah ------- 609 

Jehoiakim --------- 60S 

Jeconiah, Ooniah, or Jehoiakim, son of Jehoiakim - - 599 

Zedekiah, unele of Jeconiah, originally named Mattaniah - 597 

Zedekiah revolts against the Chaldaeans - - - - 590 
The siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. — Zedekiah's Flight. 

He is deprived of sight. — Jerusalem taken, and the temple burnt 588 
Beginning of the seventy years' captivity. — The destruction of 
the kingdom of Judah, after it had subsisted four hundred and 
sixty-eight years from the commencement of David's reign : 



366 APPENDIX. 

B.C. 

and three hundred and eighty-eight years from the separation 

between Judah and the ten tribes • 

Daniel's three companions cast into the fiery furnace - 560 

Nebuchadnezzar's death 

Evil-Merodach succeeds him ; reigns but one year 
Belshazzar his son succeeds him - - - - - 559 

Cyrus liberates the Persians, and takes the title of king - 558 

Belshazzar's impious feast ; his death - 556 

Darius the Mede succeeds Belshazzar 

Daniel's prophecy of the seventy weeks. (Dan. ix., x.) - 555 

Daniel cast into the lion's den ------ 552 

Cyrus sets the Jews at liberty, and permits their return into Judaea 547 
The Jews, returning from captivity, renew the sacrifices in the 

temple --_.-___- 546 

Darius, otherwise Ahasuerus, acknowledged king of the Persians 521 
Haggai the prophet ------- 520 

Zechariah begins to prophesy - - - - - - 519 

Darius allows the Jews to rebuild their temple - - - 518 

Here, properly, end the seventy years of captivity foretold by 

Jeremiah, which began a. m. 3416 
The dedication of the temple of Jerusalem, rebuilt by Zerub- 

babel 515 

Haman vows the destruction of the Jews, and procures from 

Ahasuerus an order for their extermination - 508 

Esther obtains a revocation of this decree 
Haman hung on the gallows he had prepared for Mordecai 
The Jews punish their enemies at Shushan, and throughout the 

Persian empire -------- 508 

Xerxes succeed Darius ------- 485 

Xerxes dies ; Artaxerxes succeeds him - 473 

He sends Ezra to Jerusalem. (Ezra vii. 1. 7, 8.) - - 467 

Ezra reforms abuses among the Jews - 466 

Dedication of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah - - 454 

Nehemiah renews the covenant of Israel with the Lord - 453 

Nehemiah returns to king Artaxerxes - 441 

Nehemiah comes a second time into Judaea, and reforms abuses 439 
Zechariah prophesies under his government ; also Malachi, whom 

several have confounded with Ezra. 



II. New Testament Historf. 

From the Birth of Jesus Christ, to the Completion of the Canon of 
the New Testament. 

Y.of 
J. c. 
The birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, the 4th year 

before a. d. _._1 

The circumcision of Jesus Christ 1 

Wise men come to worship Jesus Christ 



appendix. 357 

Y.of 
J.C. 

Purification ol the holy virgin. — Jesus presented in the temple 
Flight into Egypt 

Massacre of the innocents at Bethlehem 
Herod dies 

Archelaus appointed king of Judaea by his will 
Return of Jesus Christ out of Egypt; he goes to dwell at Naza- 
reth 
Archelaus banished to Vienna in Gaul ----- 9 

Jesus Christ, at twelve years of age, goes into the temple of Je- 
rusalem ------ -__-i2 

John the Baptist begins to preach ------ 32 

Jesus Christ baptized by John the Baptist 33 

Jesus goes into the desert 

The second passover of our Saviour's public ministry - - 34 

Our Saviour's sermon on the mount 

Mission of the apostles into several parts of Judaea 35 

John the Baptist slain by order of Herod, at the instigation of 

Herodias 
Lazarus falls sick and dies - - - - - - - 36 

Jesus comes to Jerusalem to be present at his third and last 

passover ; — 
Institutes the Lord's supper ; is betrayed and crucified. — His re- 
surrection and appearance to many. — Ascension into Heaven, 
and the miraculous effusion of the Holy Spirit 
Seven deacons chosen - " - - «■■ -. . - - 37 

Stephen martyred -----'„- 37 

Saul persecutes the church .--..- 37 

Conversion of Saul - -- - - - - - 38 

Paul a prisoner at Rome - - 64 

Paul set at liberty - 66 

Paul's second imprisonment at Rome ----- 68 

Paul and Peter put to death there - 69 

The Emperor Vespasian enters Judaea 70 

Jerusalem taken by Titus, and the Temple burnt 73 

John banished to Patmos ----„- 95 

John liberated ---------99 

John writes his Gospel and Revelation . - 100 



36g APFENDIX. 

No. VII. 

A TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL PROPHECIES RELATIVE TO THE 

MESSIAH, 

WITH THEIR ACCOMPLISHMENT, AS RELATED IN THE NEW TESTAMENT, 

1. That a Messiah should come. 

Prophecy. Gen. iii. 15. He (the seed of the woman) shall bruise thy 
head, and thou shalt bruise his heel. Compare Gen. xxii. 18, xii. 3, xxvi. 
4, xxviii. 4, and Psal. lxxii. 17. Isa. xl. 5. The glory of the Lord shall 
be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together. Hagg. ii. 7. The desire 
of all nations shall come. 

Fulfilment. Gal. iv. 4. When the fulness of time was come, God sent 
forth his son, made of a woman, (four thousand years after the first pro- 
phecy was delivered.) Rom. xvi. 20. The God of peace shall bruise 
Satan under your feet shortly. 1 John iii. 8. The Son of God was mani- 
fested that he might destroy the works of the Devil, (that old serpent, 
Rev. xii. 9.) See also Heb. ii. 14. Luke ii. 10. I bring you good tidings 
of great joy, which shall be to all people. 

2. The Time when he should come. 

Prophecy. Gen. xlix. 10. The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor 
a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come. The Messiah was 
to come at a time of universal peace, and when there was a general ex- 
pectation of him; and while the second temple was standing seventy 
weeks (of years, i. e. 490 years) after the rebuilding of Jerusalem. See 
Hagg. ii. 6—9 ; Dan ix. 23—25 ; Mai. iii. 1. 

Fulfilment. When the Messiah came, the sceptre had departed from 
Judah ; for the Jews, though governed by their own rulers and magis- 
trates, yet were subject to the paramount authority of the Roman empe- 
rors ; as was evinced by their being subject to the enrolment of Augustus, 
paying tribute to Cassar, and not having the power of life and death. 
Compare Luke ii. 1. 3—5 ; Matt. xxii. 20, 21 ; and the parallel passages ; 
and John xx. 10. 15. When Jesus Christ came into the world, the Roman 
wars were terminated, the temple of Janus was shut, and universal peace 
reigned throughout the Roman empire ; and all nations, both Jews and 
Gentiles, were expecting the coming of some extraordinary person. See 
Matt. ii. 1—10 ; Mark xv. 43 ; Luke ii. 25. 38 ; and John i. 19 — 45. for the 
expectation of the Jews. The two Roman historians, Suetonius and Ta- 
citus, confirm the fulfilment of the prediction, as to the expectation of the 
Gentiles. 

3. The Dignity op his Character, — that the Messiah should be God and 
Man together. 

Prophecy. Psal. ii. 7. Thou art my Son, this day have I begotten 
thee. Psal. ex. 1. The Lord said unto my Lord. Isa. ix. 6. The mighty 
God, the everlasting Father. Mic. 5. 2. Whose goings forth have been 
from of old, from everlasting. 

Fulfilment. Heb. i. 8. Unto the Son, he saith, "Thy throne, O God, is 
for ever and ever." Compare Matt. xxii. 42 — 55 ; Acts ii. 34, 35 ; Cor. Xv. 
24 ; Heb. i. 1 3. Matt. i. 23. They shall call his name Emmanuel, that 
is, God with us. John i. 1. 14. The Word was with God, and the Word 
was God. The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us Rom. ix. 5. 



APPENDIX 3 6 (J 

Of whom (the fathers) as concerning the flesh Christ came, who is God 
over all, blessed for ever. See also Col. ii. 9 ; 1 John v. 20. 

4. From whom he was to be descended. 

Prophecy. From the first woman. Gen. iii. 15. From Abraham and 
his descendants, Gen. xii. 3, xviii. 18 ; viz. : Isaac, Gen. xxvi. 4 ; Jacob, 
Gen. Xxviii. 14; Judah, Gen. xlix. 10; Jesse, Isa. xi. 1; David, Psal. 
cxxxii. 11, lxxxix. 4. 27 ; Isa. vi. 13, 14, ix. 7 ; Jer. xxiii. 5, and xxxiii. 20, 21. 

Fulfilment. Gal. iv. 4. When the fulness of time was come, God sent 
forth his son, made of a woman. 

Acts iii. 25. The covenant which God made with our fathers, saying 
unto Abraham, "And in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be 
blessed." See Matt. i. 1. Heb. vii. 14. It is evident that our Lord sprang 
out of Judah. Rom. xv. 12, Isaiah saith there shall be a root of Jesse. 
John vii. 42, Hath not the Scripture said, that Christ cometh of the seed 
of David. See also Acts ii. 30, xiii. 23 ; Luke i. 32. 

5. That the Messiah should be born of a Virgin. 

Prophecy. Isa. vii. 14. Behold a Virgin shall conceive and bring forth 
a Son. 

Jer. xxxi. 22. The Lord hath created a new thing on the earth ; a woman 
shall compass a man. (N. B. The ancient Jews applied this prophecy to 
the Messiah, whence it follows, that the later interpretations to the con- 
trary are only to avoid the truth which we profess ; viz. : That Jesus was 
born of a virgin, and therefore is The Christ, or Messiah. Bp. Pearson on 
the Creed, Art. III. p. 171. edit. 1715. folio.) 

Fulfilment. Matt. i. 24, 25. Joseph took his wife and knew her not, 
till she had brought forth her first born son. Compare Luke i. 26—35. 
Matt. i. 22, 23. All this was done, that it might be fulfilled, which was 
spoken of the Lord by the prophet, saying, 'Behold a virgin shall be with 
child, and shall bring forth a son.' 

6. The Place where the Messiah was to be born. 

*.■'" 
Prophecy. Mic. v. 2. Thou Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little 
among the thousands of Judah ; yet out of thee shall he come- forth unto 
me that is to be ruler in Israel. 

Fulfilment. Luke ii. 4—6. All went to be taxed (or enrolled.) every 
one into his own city. And Joseph also went up from Galilee, with Mary 
his espoused wife, unto Bethlehem ; and, while they were there she brought 
forth her first born son. Compare also Luke ii. 10, 11. 16, and Matt. ii. 1. 
4—6. 8.11; John vii. 42. 

7. That a Prophet, in the spirit and power of Elias, or Elijah, should be ths 
Messiah's forerunner and prepare his way. 

Prophecy. Malachi iii. 1, and iv. 5; Isa. xl. 3; Luke i. 17. Behold I 
will send my messenger, and he shall prepare my way before me. 

Fulfilment. Matt. iii. 1. In those days came John the Baptist preaching 
in the wilderness of Judaea, saying, Repent ye, the kingdom of heaven is 
at hand. Matt. xi. 14 ; Luke vii. 27, 28. This is Elias which was for to 
come. 

8. That he should begin to publish the Gospel z> v .Gaiilee. 

Prophecy. Isa. ix. 1 , 2. In Galilee of the nations^Jh'e p'ei^gj&at walk- 
ed in darkness haveseen a great light. ; u £•_>', » v^ iv. - • 

Fulfilment. Matt. iv. 12. 17. Now when Jesus heard that: John was 
cast into prison, he departed into Galilee. From -that time Jesus, began 
to preach and to say, Repent, for the kingdom of heaven ife at hand. 



370 APPENDIX. 

9. That the Messiah was to be a Prophet and Legislator like unto Mo&ts, 
but superior to him, who should change the law of Moses into a new and 
more perfect law, common both to Jews and Gentiles, and which should 
last for ever. 

The law of Moses was promulgated to the Jewish people exclusively, 
and was full of burdensome ceremonies ; the sacrifices enjoined by it 
were to be performed only at Jerusalem, audit was delivered by a man 
to men. But, 

Prophecy. 1. The Messiah is foretold to be a prophet like unto Moses. 
Deut. 15. 18. " The Lord thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet from 
the midst of thee, of thy brethren, like unto me. Unto him shall ye 
hearken." For Moses differs from all the other Old Testament prophets in 
this, that he was truly a legislator, the friend of God, Exod. xxxiii. 11, and 
was distinguished by the multitude of his miracles, Deut. xxxiv. 11. 

2. The Messiah was to enact a new law, Isa. iv. 3. Out of Zion shall 
go forth the law, and the word of the law from Jerusalem. 

3. This law was to be common to all nations ; see Isa. ii. 2, 3, and 11. 4, 5. 

4. The new law, or covenant of the Messiah, was to endure for ever; 
see Isa. lix. 21 ; Jer. xxxi. 34 ; Ezek. xxxvi. 27, xxxvii. 26 ; Isa. Iv. 3, lxi. 
8 ; Jer. xxxii. 40 ; Ezek. xxxir. 25 ; Dan. vii. 13, 14 ; Isa. xliii. 6, lxii. 2. 

Fulfilment. Christ is a prophet infinitely superior to Moses : 

1. As to his person. Heb. iii. 5, 6. Moses, verily, was faithful in all his 
house, as a servant, for a testimony of those things which were to be 
spoken after ; but Christ as a Son over his own house, whose house are we. 

2. As to his law. Heb. vii. 18, 19. There is a disannulling of the com- 
mandment going before, for the weakness and unprofitableness thereof; 
for the law made nothing perfect, but the bringing in of a better hope 
(i.e. of a new law,) did, by the which we draw nigh to God. 

The law of Moses belonged to one nation only, but the Gospel, which is 
the law of Christ, is designed for all nations. Compare Nos. 3 and 4 of 
the preceding predictions, with Matt, xxviii. 19, 20; Mark xvi. 20; and 
Col. i. 23. 

3. As to the benefits he has conferred. Moses delivered the Israelites 
from their cruel bondage in Egypt; he was the mediator of the covenant 
between God and his people ; he conducted them through the desert into 
Canaan, and interceded with God for them ; but all these were only tem- 
poral benefits. On the other hand, Christ saves all that truly believe in 
him, and unfeignedly repent, from the guilt, the power, and the punish- 
ment of their sins, Matt. i. 23. He hath obtained a more excellent minis- 
try, by how much also he is the mediator of abetter covenant, which was 
established upon 'better promises, Heb. viii. 6. See also Heb. vii. 22, ix. 15, 
xii. 24 ; 2 Cor. iii. 6. Christ has reconciled the world unto God, 2 Cor. v. 
19 ; 1 John ii. 2 ; and has given us an example that we should follow his 
steps, 1 Pet. ii. 21—23. As our forerunner, he hath entered into heaven, 
that where he is, there his followers maybe also, Heb. vi. 20, ix. 24 ; John 
xiv. 2, 3 ; and as an advocate he ever liveth to make intercession for all 
that come unto God by him, 1 John ii. 1 ; Heb. vii. 25. 

4. As to the circumstances of his death. Moses died, in one sense, for the 
iniquities of his people. Their rebellion, which was the occasion of it, 
drew down the divine displeasure upon them, and upon him. See Deut. i. 
37. Moses, therefore, went up, in the sight of the people, to the top of 
Mount Nebo, and there he died, when he was in perfect rigour. Christ 
suffered for the sins of mankind, and was led up in the presence of the 
people to Calvary, where he died in the flower of his age. 

" Let us search all the records of universal history, and see if we can 
find a man who was so like to Moses as Christ was. If we cannot find 
such a one, then we have found HIM, of whom Moses in the law and the 
prophets did write, to be Jesus of Nazareth, the Son of God." 



APPENDIX. 37 1 

10. That the Messiah should confirm his doctrine by great Miracles. 

Prophecy. Isa. xxxv. 5, 6. Then the eyes of the blind shall be opened, 
and the ears of the deaf shall be unstopped ; then shall the lame man 
leap as a hart, and the tongue of the dumb sing. 

Fulfilment. Matt. xi. 4, 5. Jesus . . . said, "Go and show John those 
things which ye do hear and see : the blind receive their sight, and the 
lame walk; the lepers are cleansed, and the deaf hear." 

11. In what manner the Messiah was to make his public entry into 

Jerusalem. 

Prophecy. Zech. ix. 9. Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Jerusalem, be- 
hold thy King cometh unto thee ; he is just, and having salvation, lowly, 
and riding upon an ass, even upon a colt, the foal of an ass. 

Fulfilment. Matt. xxi. 7 — 10. The disciples, brought the ass and the 
colt, and put on them their clothes, and set him (Jesus) thereon, (that is, 
upon the clothes.) And great multitudes spread their garments, &c. &c. 
Matt. xxi. 4, 5. All this was done, that it might be fulfilled which was 
spoken by the prophet, saying, Tell ye the daughter ofZion, "Behold thy 
King cometh," &c. &c. 

12. The Circumstances of his Sufferings and Death. 

1. That the Messiah should be poor and despised, and be betrayed by one 
of his own disciples, for thirty pieces of silver ; (at that time the ordinary 
price of the vilest slave;) with which the potter's field should be ptirchased. 

Prophecy. Isa. liii. 3. There is no beauty that we should desire him. 
He is despised and rejected of men, a man of sorrows, and acquainted 
with grief; and we hid as it were our faces from him ; he was despised, 
and we esteemed him not. Ps. xli. 9, and Ps. lv. 12 — 14. Yea, mine own 
familiar friend in whom I trusted, who did eat of my bread, hath lift up 
his heel against me. Zech. xi. 12. So they weighed for my price thirty 
pieces of silver. Zech. xi. 13. And the Lord said unto me, Cast it unto the 
potter : a goodly price that I was prized at of them ! And I took the thirty 
pieces of silver, and cast them to the potter in the house of the Lord. 

Fulfilment. Luke ix. 58. The Son of Man hath not where to lay his 
head. 2 Cor. viii. 9. For your sakes he became poor. John xi. 35. Jesus 
wept. Luke xxii. 3, 4. Then Satan entered into Judas, being one of the 
twelve, and he went his way, and communed with the chief priests how 
he might betray him unto them. Matt. xxvi. 14. And Judas went unto the 
chief priests, and said unto them, What will ye give me, and I will deliver 
him unto you 1 and they covenanted with him for thirty pieces of silver. 
Matt, xxvii. 3 — 8. Then Judas, who had betrayed him, brought again the 
thirty pieces of silver, saying, I have sinned in that I have betrayed inno- 
cent blood ; and he cast down the pieces of silver in the temple, and de- 
parted, and went and hanged himself. And the chief priests took the 
silver, and they said, it is not lawful to put it into the treasury, because 
it is the price of blood. And they took counsel, and bought with them the 
potter's field, to bury strangers in. 

2. That the Messiah should suffer pain and death for the sins of the 
World. 

Prophecy. Psal. xxii. 16, 17. For dogs, (that is, the Heathens, whom 
the Jews called dogs,) have compassed me ; the assembly of the wicked 
have inclosed me ; they have pierced my hands and my feet. I may tell 
all my bones ; they look and stare upon me. Isa. 1. 6. I gave my back to 
the smiters, and my cheeks to them that plucked off the hair. I hid not 
my face from shame and spitting. Isa. liii. 5. 8. He was wounded for our 
transgressions : he was bruised for our iniquities : by his stripes we are 
healed. He was cut off out of the land of the living: for the transgres- 
sion of my people was h°, striken. Isa. liii. 12. And he bare the Bin of 
many, and made intercession for the transgressors. 



372 APPENDIX. 

Fulfilment. John xix. 1, 2. Then Pilate took Jesus, and scourged him. 
And the soldiers platted a crown of thorns, and they smote him with the 
palms of their hands. Matt, xxvii. 30; Mark xv. 19. And they did spituporx 
him, and smote him on the head, Mark xv. 25. And they crucified him. 
1 Pet. ii. 23, 24. Who, when he was reviled, reviled not again ; when he 
suffered, he threatened not. Who bare our sins in his own body on the 
tree, (the cross.) Luke xxiii. 34. Then, said Jesus, " Father, forgive them, 
for they know not what they do." 

3. That the Messiah should be cruelly mocked and derided. 
Prophecy. Psal. xxii. 12, 13. 7, 8. Many bulls have compassed me ; 

strong bulls of Bashan, (that is, the wicked and furious Jews, who, like 
the beasts fattened on the fertile plains of Bashan, " waxed fat and kicked," 
became proud and rebellious,) have beset me round. They gaped upon 
me with their mouth ; as a ravening and roaring lion. ^All they that see 
me, laugh me to scorn ; they shoot out the lip, saying, he trusted in God 
that he would deliver him : let him deliver him, seeing he delighted in him. 
Fulfilment. Matt, xxvii. 39.41, 42; Markxv. 31, 32; Luke xxiii. 35, 36. 
And they that passed by, reviled him, wagging their heads. Likewise 
also the chief priests, and the rulers also with them, derided, and mock- 
Ing, said among themselves, with the scribes and elders, " He saved others; 
himself he cannot save ; if he be the Christ, the chosen of God, let him 
now come down from the cross, and save himself, that we may see, and we 
will believe him. He trusted in God, let him deliver him now, if he will 
have him." And the soldiers also mocked him, saying, "If thou be the 
King of the Jews, save thyself." 

4. That vinegar and gall should be offered to the Messiah upon the cross; 
and that his garments should be divided, and lots cast for his vesture. 

Prophecy. Psal. lxix. 21. They gave me also gall for my meat, and 
in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink. Psal. xxii. 18. They part 
my garments among them, and cast lots upon my vesture. 

Fulfilment. John xix. 29. Matt, xxvii. 48; Mark xv. 36. And they 
filled a sponge with vinegar, and put it upon hyssop, and put it to his 
mouth, John xix. 23, 24. And the soldiers, when they had crucified Jesus, 
took his garments, and made four parts, to every soldier a part : and also 
his coat: now the coat was without seam. They said, therefore, let 
us not rend it, but cast lots, whose it shall be. 

5. That not a bone of the Messiah should be broken. 

Prophecy. Psal. xxxiv. 20. He keep eth all his bones: not one of them 
is broken. Zech. xii. 10. And they shall look upon me whom they have 
pierced. 

Fulfilment. John xix. 32 — 34. Then came the soldiers, and brake the 
legs of the first, and of the other which was crucified with him ; but 
when they came to Jesus, and saw that he was dead already, they brake 
not his legs. But one of the soldiers, with a spear, pierced his side, and 
forthwith there came out blood and water. 

6. That the Messiah should die with malefactors, but be buried honour 
ably. 

Prophecy. Isa. liii. 9. And he made his grave with the wicked, and 
with the rich in his death. 

Fulfilment. Matt, xxvii. 38. 57—60. Then were there two thieves cru- 
cified with him. There came a rich man of Arimathea, named Joseph, 
and begged the body of Jesus ; and he wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, 
and laid it in his own new tomb. 

13. That the Messiah should rise from the dead and ascend into 
heaven. 

Prophecy. Psal. xvi. 9, 10. My flesh also shall rest in hope. For thou 
wilt not leave my soul in hell, (the separate state of departed spirits,) 
neither wilt thou suffer thy holy one to see corruption. Isa. liii. 10. 
When thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin, he shall prolong his 
days. Jesus Christ also foretold his own resurrection; see Mark viii. 31, 
x. 34; Luke ix. 22 1 John ii. 19. 21, x. 17. Psal. lxviii. 18. Thou hast as. 



APPENDIX. 373 

tended up on high ; thou hast led captivity captive ; thou hast received 
gifts for men, that the Lord God might dwell among them. 

Fulfilment. Acts ii. 31. David spake before of the resurrection of 
Christ, that his soul was not left in hell; (Hades, or the separate state;) 
neither did his flesh see corruption. See also Acts xiii. 35. Matt, xxviii. 5, 
6. The angels said unto the Woman, "He is not here, for he is risen, as 
he said." See Luke xxiv. 5, 6. 1 Cor. xv. 4. He rose again the third day, 
according to Scriptures: Acts i. 3. He showed himself alive after his pas- 
sion, by many infallible proofs. Mark xvi. 19; Luke xxiv. 51 ; Acts i. 9. 
So then, after the Lord had spoken to them, while he was blessing them, 
and while they beheld him, he was parted from them, and carried up 
into heaven, and sat at the right hand of God. Compare also 1 Pet, iii. 22 ; 
1 Tim. iii. 16 ; Heb. vi. 20. 

14. That the Messiah should send the Holy Spirit, the Comforter. 

Prophecy. Joel ii. 28. I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh ; and 
your sons and your daughters shall prophesy. Jesus Christ promised, and 
foretold the gift of the Holy Spirit, in John vii. 38, 39, xiv. 16, 17. 26, xv. 
26, xvi. 7. 13; Acts i. 4, 5. 8. 

Fulfilment. See all these promises and predictions fulfilled in Acts ii. 
1—4, iv. 31, viii. 17, x. 44, xi. 15. 

15. The Abolition op the Jewish covenant by the introduction of the 
Gospel. 

Prophecy. Behold the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a 
new covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah : not 
according to the covenant that I made with their fathers, in the day that 
I took them by the hand to bring them out of Egypt ; which my cove- 
nant they brake, though I was a husband to them, saith the Lord. But 
this shall be the covenant, that I will make with the house of Israel : 
After those days, saith the Lord, I will put my law in their inward parts, 
and write it in their hearts, and will be their God, and they shall be my 
people. And they shall teach no more every man his neighbour, and 
every man his brother, saying, "Know the Lord:" for they shall all know 
me, from the least of them unto the greatest of them, saith the Lord : for 
I will forgive their iniquity, and I will remember their sin no more. The 

Fulfilment of this prediction is shown at length by St. Paul, in the 
eighth chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews, verses 7 — 13. 

The old covenant is abolished, and its observance rendered impossible 
by the expulsion of the Jew's from Judaea and Jerusalem, and by the utter 
destruction of that temple and altar, on which the whole of the Jewish 
Worship depended. It is, therefore, as impossible to doubt that the Medi- 
ator of the new covenant is come, as to question those external facta 
which prove that the ancient covenant subsists no longer. 

16. That there is salvation only through Christ. 

Prophecy. Zech. xiii. 1. In that day there shall be a fountain opened 
to the house of David, and to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, for sin, and 
for uncleanness. Mai. iv. 2. Unto you that fear my name, shall the Sun 
of Righteousness arise, with healing in his wings, Isa. liii. 1 1. By his know- 
ledge shall my righteous Servant justify many. Isa. lix. 20. The Re- 
deemer shall come to Sion, and unto them that turn from transgression 
in Jacob. See Rom. ix. 26. Ps. cxviii. 22. The stone which the builders 
refused, the same is become the head-stone of the corner, Isa. xxviii. 
16; Markxii. 10. 

Fulfilment. John iii. 16. God so loved the world, that he gave his only 
begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him, should not perish but have 
everlasting life. Compare also 1 Thes. v. 9 ; John xvii. 3. Luke xxiv. 47. 
That repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name. 
See also Acts x. 43, Acts xiii. 38, 39. Through this man is preached unto 

32 



3/4 AITENDIX. 

you the forgiveness of sins ; and by him all that believe are justified, 
Actsiv. 11, 12. This is the stone which was set at naught of you build- 
ers, which is become the head of the corner. Neither is there salvation in 
any other : for there is none other name under Heaven given among men, 
whereby we must be saved. 

17. Of the necessity of believing in Christ, arid the danger of rejecting 
him. 

Deut. xviii. 15.19. The Lord will raise up unto thee a prophet, unto him 
shall ye hearken : whosoever will not hearken unto my words, which he 
shall speak in my name, I will require it of him. [In Acts iii. 23, this 
prediction is cited and applied to Jesus Christ.] Numb. xv. 30, 31. The 
soul that doth aught presumptuously, reproacheth the Lord; and that 
soul shall be cut off from among his people, because he hath despised the 
word of the Lord. Ps. ii. 12. Kiss the son, lest he be angry, and ye perish 
from the right way. 

John iii. 18. He that believeth on him is not condemned ; but he that 
believeth not is condemned already, because he hath not believed in the 
name of the only Son of God. Heb. ii. 3. How shall we escape if we ne- 
glect so great salvation. Heb. x. 26. 29. If we sin wilfully, after that we 
have received the knowledge of the truth, there remaineth no more sacri- 
fice for sins, but a certain fearful louking for of judgment and fiery indig- 
nation, which shall devour the adversaries. He that despised Moses' law 
died without mercy, under two or three witnesses ; of how much sorer 
punishment shall he be thought worthy, who hath trodden under foot the 
Son of God, and hath counted the blood of the covenant, wherewith he 
was sanctified, an unholy thing, and hath done despite unto the Spirit of 
grace. The Lord shall be revealed from Heaven, with his mighty angels, 
in flaming fire, talcing vengeance on them that know not God, and that 
obey not the gospel of our Lord Christ, 2 Thess. i. 7, 8. 



"The testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy," Rev. xix. 10: and 
of that testimony, it were easy to have offered hundreds of instances, 
equally striking with those above given. Copious as the preceding table 
of prophecies is. the selection has necessarily been restricted to the princi- 
pal, in order that this article might not be extended to an undue length. 
A more copious table is given in the appendix to the first volume of the 
author's Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy 
Scriptures. To conclude, it is worthy of remark, that most of the pro- 
phecies concerning the Messiah were revealed nearly, and some of them 
more than three thousand years ago, and yet scarcely one of them can be 
applied to any man that ever lived upon earth, except to him, who is 
Immanuel, God with us, the Lord Jesus Christ, to w T hom "give ail the 
prophets witness," Acts x. 43. The more we contemplate these, astonishing 
facts, the more deeply we investigate the wonderful display of Divine 
power, wisdom, and goodness, the more we shall be disposed to exclaim, 
with the amazed centurion. " Trulu this was the Son of God." 



A CONCISE 

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX 



PRINCIPAL PLACES MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES, ESPECIALLY 
IN THE NEW TESTAMENT 



Abana and Pharpar, two rivers 
of Damascus, mentioned in 2 Kings 
v. 12. The valley of Damascus, 
which lay between Libanus and 
Anti-Libanus, was watered by five 
rivers, of which these were the two 
principal. Both descended from 
Mount Hermon : the latter flowed 
by the walls of Damascus ; the for- 
mer flowed through the city and di- 
vided it into two parts. These ri- 
vers are not now to be distinguish- 
ed. 

Abarim, mountains of. See pp. 
177, 178. 

Abel, Abel-beth-Maacha, or Abel- 
main, a city in the northern part of 
the canton allotted to the tribe of 
Naphtali. (2 Sam. xx. 14—22. 1 
Kings xv. 20. 2 Kings xv. 29.) 

Abel-meholah was the native 
country of Elisha. (I Kings xix. 
16.) Not far from hence, Gideon 
obtained a victory over the Midian- 
ites. (Judg. vii. 22.) 

Abel-shittim was a town in the 
plains of Moab, beyond Jordan, op- 
posite Jericho. Here the Israelites 
fell into idolatry, and worshipped 
Baal-Peor, seduced by Balak ; and 
here God severely punished them 
by the hands of the Levites. (Numb, 
xxv. 1, &c.) 

Abilene. See p. 164, supra. 

Accho. See Ptolemais. 

Aceldama, (or the Field of Blood,) 
the name given to a field purchased 
with the money for which Judas 
had betrayed Jesus. It was appro- 
priated as a place of burial for 
strangers (Acts i. 19. Matt, xxvii. 
7,8.) 

Achaia, in a tcider sense, com- 
prised Peloponnesus and the whole 
of Greece, properlv so called. (2 



Cor. xi. 10.) In a stricter sense, 
Achaia is the northern region of 
Peloponnesus, of which Corinth was 
the capital. 

ACHMETHA. See ECBATANA. 

Achor, a valley in the territory of 
Jericho, and in the canton of the 
tribe of Benjamin, where Achan was 
stoned. (Josh. vii. 24.) 

Ackshaph, a city belonging to the 
tribe of Asher. The king of Ack- 
shaph was conquered by Joshua, 
(xii. 20.) 

Admah, or Adaha, one of the five 
cities destroyed by fire from heaven, 
and afterwards overwhelmed by the 
waters of the Dead Sea. (Gen. xix. 
21.) 

Adramyttittm, a maritime town of 
Mysia, in Asia Minor, for which Paul 
embarked in his first voyage to Italy. 
(Acts xxvii. 12.) 

Ajdria, mentioned in Acts xxvii. 
27, is the Adriatic Sea, now called 
the Gulf of Venice. 

jEnon, or Enon, signifies the place 
of springs, where John baptized. 
(John iii. 23.) It is uncertain where 
it was situated, whether in Galilee 
or Judaea. 

Ahava, a river of Babylonia, or 
of Assyria, where Ezra assembled 
those captives whom he afterwards 
brought into Judaea. (Ezraviii. 15.) 

Ajalon, a city in the canton of the 
tribe of Dan, assigned to the Levites 
of Kohath's family. It was situated 
between Timnath and Beth-She- 
mesh, and is probably the city al- 
luded to in Josh. x. 12. 

Alexandria, a city of Egypt, built 
by Alexander the Great, celebrated 
for the magnificence of its edifices, 
and for the extensive commerce 
carried on by its inhabitants, espe- 



376 



GEOGRAPHICAL H*D£X. 



daily in corn. Alexandria was the 
native place of Apollos. (Acts xviii. 
24.) 

Amphipolis, a city between Mace- 
don and Thrace, but dependant on 
Macedon, mentioned in Acts xvii. 1 . 

Anathoth, a city in the tribe of 
Benjamin, memorable as being the 
birthplace of the prophet Jeremiah. 
(Josh. xxi. 18. Jer. i. 1.) 

Antioch, the metropolis of Syria, 
was erected, according to some 
writers, by Antiochus Epiphanes, 
according to others, by Seleucus Ni- 
canor, the first king of Syria after 
Alexander the Great, in memory of 
his father Antiochus, and was the 
royal seat of the kings of Syria. For 
power and dignity it was little in- 
ferior to Seleucia or Alexandria. 
The distinctive name of Christians 
was here first applied to the follow- 
ers of Jesus Christ. (Acts xi. 19. 
26.) 

Antioch of Pisidia, a city of Fhry- 
gia, but thus denominated because it 
was attached to the province of Pi- 
sidia. (Acts xiii. 14.) 

Antipatris, a small town which 
was situated in the road from Jeru- 
salem to Csesarea. It was formerly 
called Capharsalma ; but, being re- 
built and beautified by Herod the 
Great, it was by him named Anti- 
patris in honour of his father Anri- 
pater. Hither St. Paul was brought 
after his apprehension at Jerusalem. 
(Acts xxiii. 31.) 

Apollonia, a city of Macedonia 
Prima, through which Paul passed, 
in his way to Thessalonica. (Acts 
xvii. 1.) 

Aeabia, the name of a large region, 
including the peninsula which lies 
oetween Syria, Palestine, the Ara- 
bian and Persian Gulfs, and the 
Indian Ocean or Sea of Arabia. Its 
inhabitants are supposed to be prin- 
cipally descended from Ishmael. It 
is distinguished into three parts, 
Arabia Felix, Petraia, and Deserta ; 
but these divisions were not ancient- 
ly known to the inhabitants of the 
East, nor are they observed in the 
Bible. 

1. Araeia Felix lies between the 
ocean on the south-east, and the 
Arabian and Persian Gulfs. It is a 
fertile region, especially in the in- 
terior, producing various species of 
odoriferous shrubs and fragrant 
gums ; as, frankincense, myrrh, en? 



sia, &c. The Queen of Sheba C 
Kings x. 1,) is supposed to have 
reigned over part of this region. 

2. Arabia Petr^a received its 
name from the city Petra, and lies 
on the south and south-east of Pales- 
tine ; extending to Egypt, and in- 
cluding the peninsula of mount 
Sinai. It is remarkable for its 
mountains and sandy plains. 

3. Arabia Deserta lies between 
the other two, arid extends north- 
ward along the confines of Palestine, 
Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia; 
including the vast deserts winch lie 
within these limits, and which are 
inhabited only by wandering tribes 
of savage Arabs. 

Aram, fifth son of Shem, was 
father of the people of Syria, who, 
from him, are called Aramaeans. 
The region which in the Old Testa- 
ment is denominated Aram, is a vast 
tract, extending from Mount Taurus 
south as far as Damascus, and from 
the Mediterranean Sea in an eastern 
direction beyond the Tigris into As- 
syria. Different parts of this region 
are called by different names ; as, 
Aram Naharaim, or Syria of the 
Two Rivers, that is Mesopotamia; 
Aram of Damascus ; Aram of Soba ; 
Aram Bethrehob ; and Aram of 
Maacha; because the cities of Da- 
mascus, Soba, Bethrehob, and Maa- 
cha, were in Syria ; or at least, be- 
cause Syria contained the provinces 
of Soba, Maacha, Rehob, &c. 

Ararat, a celebrated mountain in 
the Greater Armenia; on which 
Noah's nrk rested after the deluge. 
(Gen. viii. 4.) 

Arimathea , a small town to which 
Joseph belonged, who begged the 
body of Jesus from Pilate: (Matt, 
xxvii. 57 :) it was about thirty-six 
or thirty-seven miles distant from 
Jerusalem. 

Arn on (River.) Seep. 173, supra. 

Ashdod. SeeAzotus, p. 377, infra. 

Asia, one of the largest divisions 
of the old world, is not mentioned in 
the Old Testament, In the New 
Testament it is always taken for 
Asia Minor, as it includes the pro- 
consular Asia, which comprised the 
four regions of Phrygia, Mysia, 
Caria, and Lydia. In this procon- 
sular Asia were the seven churches 
of Ephesus, Laodicaea, Pergamos, 
Philadelphia. Sardis, Smyrna, and 
Thyatira. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



377 



Assos, a maritime city of Mysia, 
according to some geographers, but 
of Troas, according to others. It is 
mentioned in Acts xx. 13, 14. 

Assyria, a country of Asia, the 
boundaries of which it is difficult to 
assign. Three of its monarchs are 
particularly mentioned in the Old 
Testament, viz. Tiglath-pileser, Shal- 
maneser, and Sennacherib. The 
former, having defeated Rezin, king 
of Damascus, and taken that city, 
put an end to the kingdom there 
erected by the Syrians. He also 
entered the kingdom of Israel, con- 
quered Pekah, and carried away 
part of the ten tribes beyond the 
river Euphrates. Shalmaneser, the 
successor of Tiglath-pileser, came 
into Syria, a. m. 3280, b. c. 724, and 
desolated the country of the Moab- 
ites, agreeably to the prophecy of 
Isaiah, (xvi. 1,) delivered three years 
before. He then attacked Samaria, 
and completed the misfortunes of 
the Israelites who remained, by car- 
rying them into captivity beyond 
the Euphrates. Thus terminated 
the kingdom of Israel, a. m. 3283, 
b. c. 721. (2 Kings xvii. 3, xviii. 
9 — 11.) Hezekiah, by the special 
protection of God, escaped the fury 
of Shalmaneser, to whom, however, 
he became tributary, and the Assy- 
rian returned in triumph to Nine- 
veh. He was succeeded on the 
throne by his son Sennacherib, a. m. 
3287, b. c. 717. He invaded the 
kingdom of Judah, during the reign 
of Hezekiah, who had refused to 
pay the tributestipulated by Shalma- 
neser ; but an angel of Jehovah slew 
one hundred and eighty-five thou- 
sand of his troops. (2 Kings xix. 35.) 
Sennacherib returned to Nineveh, 
where two of his sons, weary of his 
tyranny and savage temper, slew 
him while he was worshipping in 
the temple of Nisroch his god, and 
Immediately fled into the mountains 
of Armenia. (2 Kings xix. 37. Tobit 
i. 21.) He was succeeded by his son 
Esarhaddon. 

Athens, the capital of Attica, and 
the chief city of ancient Greece. It 
was distinguished by the military 
talents, but still more by the learn- 
ing, eloquence, and politeness of 
its inhabitants. Saint Paul coming 
hither, a. d. 32, found them plunged 
in idolatry, occupied in inquiring 
and reporting news, curious to know 



every thing, and divided in opinion 
concerning religion and happiness. 
(Acts xvii.) The great apostle of 
the Gentiles, taking opportunities 
here to preach Jesus Christ, was 
carried before the judges of the tri- 
bunal, called the Areopagus ; where 
he gave an illustrious testimony to 
truth, and a remarkable instance of 
powerful reasoning. (See an account 
of the Areopagus in p. 194, supra.) 

Attalia, a maritime city of Pam- 
phylia, and the chief residence of 
the prefect. It derived its name 
from king Attalus, its founder. 
Hither St. Paul went from Perga in 
Pamphylia. (Acts xiv. 25.) 

Azotus, or Ashdod, a city of Judasa, 
is situated between Gaza and Jam- 
nia, or Jafnia, in a pleasant plain. 
Here the ark of Jehovah triumphed 
over the Philistine idol Dagon, (1 
Sam. v. 2,) and Philip the Evangelist 
was found, after he had baptized the 
Ethiopian eunuch. (Acts viii. 40.) 
It is at present an inconsiderable 
place. 



Babylon, the metropolis of the 
Chaldaean, or Babylonish Empire, 
was situated on the river Euphrates, 
and was celebrated for its extent 
and for the magnificence of its edi- 
fices. The most terrible denuncia- 
tions were uttered against it by the 
Hebrew Prophets, especially Isaiah ; 
the literal fulfilment of whose pre- 
dictions has been shown by various 
modern travellers. 

Bashan, or Batan^a. See p. 164, 
supra. 

Berea, a city of Macedonia, where 
Paul preached the Gospel with great 
success. Acts xviii. 10. 

Besor, Brook. See p. 173, supra. 

Bethany, a town of Judasa, where 
Lazarus dwelt, and where he was 
raised from the dead, was fifteen 
furlongs east from Jerusalem, on the 
way to Jericho. (John xi. 8.) But 
the tract of ground which bore that 
name reached within eight furlongs 
of Jerusalem, it being only a sab- 
bath-day's journey from it ; (Luke 
xxiv. 50 Acts i. 12 ;) and then be- 
gan the tract called 

Bethphage, from the (payoc, that 
is, the green figs, that grew upon it. 
which ran along so near to Jerusa- 
lem, that the utmost street within 



37S 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



the walls was called by that name. 

Bethlehem was a celebrated city 
about six miles south-west from Je- 
rusalem. In Matt. ii. 1.5. it is called 
Bethlehem of Judaea, to distinguish 
it from another town of the same 
name situated in Lower Galilee, and 
mentioned in Josh. xix. 1 5. In Luke 
ii. 4, it is called the city of David, 
because David was born and educa- 
ted there. (Compare John vii. 42, 
and 1 Sam. xvi. 1. 18.) This city, 
though not considerable for its ex- 
tent or riches, is of great dignity as 
the appointed birth-place of the 
Messiah. (Matt. ii. 6. Luke ii. 6— 
15.> 

Bethsaida was the name of two 
towns or villages. 

1. Bethsaida of Galilee was situa- 
ted in Galilee, on the western shore 
of the lake of Gennesareth, a little 
south of Capernaum. It was the 
birth-place of the Apostles Philip, 
Andrew, and Peter. 

2. The other Bethsaida lay in 
Gaulonitis, on the eastern side of the 
lake, and near the place where the 
Jordan enters it. This town was 
enlarged by Philip, tetrarch of that 
region, who called it Julias, in 
honour of Julia, the daughter of 
Augustus. 

Bithynia, a region of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by the Eurine 
Sea, on the south by Phrygia, on the 
west by the Propontis, and on the 
east by Galatia. Saint Peter ad- 
dressed his first epistle (among 
others) to the Hebrew Christians 
who were scattered throughout Bi- 
thynia. (1 Pet. i. 1.) 



Cesarea of Palestine, so called 
as being the metropolis of Palestine 
and the residence of the Roman pro- 
consul, was formerly named the 
tower of Strato ; but its harbour be- 
ing extremely incommodious, Herod 
the Great erected a spacious mole, 
and greatly enlarged and beautified 
the city, which he denominated 
Caesarea, in honour of the emperor 
Augustus. It is very frequently 
mentioned in the New Testament ; 
and was about thirty- five miles from 
Jerusalem. 

Cjesarea Philippi (formerly called 
Paneas) was situated at the foot of 
mount Paneas, near the springs of 



the Jordan. It was at first called 
Lais or Lechein, (Judg. xviii. 7,) and 
after it was subdued by the Danites, 
(v. 29,) it received the appellation of 
Dan. Caesarea was a day's journey 
from Sidon; a day and a half from 
Damascus. Philip the tetrarch built 
it, or, at least, embellished and en- 
larged it, and named it Caesarea, in 
honour of Tiberius ; afterwards, in 
compliment to Nero, it was called 
Neronias. The woman who waa 
troubled with an issue of blood, and 
healed by our Saviour, (Matt. ix. 20. 
Luke viii. 43,) is said to have been 
of Caesarea Philippi. 

Cana, a small town of Galilee, 
situated on a gentle eminence to the 
west of Capernaum. Here Jesus 
Christ performed the miracle of 
turning water into wine. (John ii. 
7—10.) 

Canaan, Land of. See p. 159, 
supra, 

Capernaum, a town of Galilee, 
situated on the coast of the Lake of 
Gennesareth, on the borders of the 
tract occupied by the tribes of Zebu- 
lun and Nephthalim. This place is 
celebrated for the many mighty 
works and discourses performed by 
our Saviour, which brought a heavy 
wo upon the inhabitants for their 
infidelity. (Matt. xi. 23.) 

Cappadocia, a fertile region of 
Asia Minor, mentioned in Acts ii. 9, 
and also by the apostle Peter, who 
addresses his first Epistle to the He- 
brew Christians who were dispersed 
through Pontus, Galatia, Cappado- 
cia, Bithynia, and Asia Minor. 

Carmel, Mount. See p. 176, s«- 
pra. 

Cedron or Kedron, Brook. See p. 
173, supra. 

Cenchrea, a haven on the east of 
the isthmus of Corinth, to which city 
it was considered as a kind of subsi- 
diary port. It is mentioned in Acts 
xviii. 18. 

Chald.ea, a country of Asia, lying 
near the junction of the Tigris and 
Euphrates, the capital of which was 
Babylon, whence it was also deno- 
minated Babylonia. In ancient times 
it was known by the names Sh4nar, 
Shinaar, &c. 

Chios (Acts XX. 15,) is an island of 
the JSgean Sea, between Lesbos and 
Samos, celebrated in ancient and in 
modern times, for its wine, figs, 
marble, and white earth. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



379 



Chittim. The land of Chittim, 
and the isles of Chittim, denote in 
general, the maritime countries and 
islands of the Mediterranean, Greece, 
Italy, Crete, Cyprus, Corsica, &c. 

Chorazin, a small town situated 
on the western coast of the Sea of 
Galilee, at no great distance from 
Capernaum. It was one of those 
places where very many of our Sa- 
viour's miracles were performed, 
whose inhabitants he upbraided for 
their infidelity. (Matt. xi. 21. Luke 
X. 13.) 

Cilicia, a country of Asia Minor, 
between Pamphylia on the west, 
and Pieria on the east, the Mount 
Taurus on the north, and the Cili- 
cian Sea on the south, celebrated on 
the account of Cicero, proconsul 
there, but more on the account of 
St. Paul's birth at Tarsus, a city of 
Cilicia. (Acts xxii. 3.) 

Clauda, an island near Crete, situ- 
ated near the southern and western 
Bea. It is mentioned in Acts xxvii. 
16 ; as also is 

Cnidus, (xxvii. 7,) which was a 
city and promontory of Paria, me- 
morable for the worship of Venus. 

Colossi, or Colass.®, was a city 
of Phrygia Pacatiana in Asia Minor, 
situated near the conflux of the Ly- 
cus and the Meander, not far from 
the cities of Hierapolis and Laodi- 
cea, with which it was destroyed by 
an earthquake, not long after St. 
Paul wrote his epistle to the Colos- 
sians. 

Coos, an island in the J3gean Sea, 
lying off the coast of Caria in Asia 
Minor, near the cities of Myndos 
and Cnidus. It is mentioned in Acts 
xxi. 1. 

Corinth, the metropolis of Achaia 
Proper, was situated on the isthmus 
which connects the Peloponnesus 
with the main land. It was distin- 
guished as the seat of commerce, 
arts, and wealth. St. Paul resided 
here for some time, about a. d. 52. 
and collected a Christian Church, 
the numerous members of which 
were not afterwards exempt from 
the common vices of the place. 

Cyprus, an island in the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, situated between Cilicia 
and Syria, and anciently celebrated 
for the profligacy of its inhabitants, 
whose principal deity was the im- 
pure goddess Venus. Here Paul and 
Barnabas landed, a. d. 44, and suc- 



cessfully preached the Gospel. (Acta 
xiii- 4. et seq. xxi. 3.) 

Cyrene, the principal city of the 
province of Lybia in Africa, which 
was thence sometimes demonstrated 
Cyrenaica, and which, by the evan- 
gelist Luke, is paraphrastically call- 
ed Lybia about Cyrene. (Acts ii. 10 ) 



Dalmanutha. See Magdala. 

Damascus, a city of Syria, situated 
in the valley belween Libanus and 
Antilibanus, watered by the rivers 
Abana and Pharphar. (2 Kings v. 
12.) It is celebrated for its antiquity, 
and for being still one of the richest 
and most magnificent cities of the 
Levant, but most of all for being the 
place of the miraculous conversion 
of St. Paul. 

Dead Sea. SeS p. 174. supra. 

Decapolis. See p. 165. supra. 

Derbe, a city of Lycaonia, neai 
Isauria, not far from the Cilician 
range of Mount Taurus. It was the 
country of Timothy, and is mention- 
ed in Acts xiv. 6. 

Ebal (Mount.) See p. 177. supra. 

Egypt, a country of Africa, bound- 
ed on the east by Arabia Petraea and 
the Red Sea, or Arabian gulf; on 
the west, by Lybia, and Marmarica ; 
on the south by Ethiopia, and on the 
north by the Mediterranean Sea. In 
the earliest times, this country was 
divided into Upper Egypt, or The- 
bais, (the Pathros of Scripture,) and 
Lower Egypt. The whole region 
was known to the ancient Hebrews 
by the name of Mizraim ; and the 
princes who governed it, were, in 
virtueof their office, styled Pharaohs, 
or kings, until the time of Solomon, 
after which they are designated in 
the Scriptures by their proper names. 
After the captivity, Egypt became a 
place of great resort to the Jews. 

Elah, Valley of. See p. 178. us- 
pra. 

Emmaus, a small village of Judaea, 
distant sixty furlongs from Jerusa- 
lem. It is memorable for the very 
interesting conversation between Je- 
sus Christ and two of his disciples 
in the evening of the day of his re- 
surrection. (Luke xxiv.) 

Ephesus, a city on the western 
coast of Asia Minor, and the metro- 
polis of the proconsular Asia, was 
celebrated for the magnificent tern- 



380 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



pie erected there in honour of Diana. 
In the time of Saint Paul, this city- 
abounded with orators and philoso- 
phers ; and its inhabitants, in their 
Gentile state, were celebrated for 
their idolatry and skill in magic, as 
well as for their luxury and lascivi- 
ousness. Ephesus is now under the 
dominion of the Turks, and is in a 
state of almost total ruin. 

Ephuaim, a considerable city of 
Judcea, eight miles north of Jerusa- 
lem, and near a desert of the same 
name ; to which Jesus Christ retired 
after he had raised Lazarus from the 
dead. (John xi. 54.) 



Gadara, the metropolis of Percea, 
or the region beyond Jordan, was 
situated on the eastern shore of the 
lake of Gennesareth, opposite to Ti- 
berias, from which it was about 7 
or 8 miles distant. Few of its inha- 
bitants were Jews. 

Galatia, a province of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the west by Phrygia, on 
the east by the river Halys, on the 
north by Paphlagonia, and on the 
south by Lycaonia. The Galatians 
were the descendents of those Gauls 
who, finding their own country too 
small to support its redundant popu- 
lation, emigrated from it after the 
death of Alexander the Great, b. c. 
278. During the reign of Augustus 
(a. v. c. 529. b. c. 26.) Galatia was 
reduced into a Roman province, and 
was thenceforh governed by the Ro- 
man laws, under the administration 
of a proprcetor. This country was 
the seat of colonies from various na- 
tions, among whom were many 
Jews ; and from all these St. Paul 
appears to have made numerous 
eonveris to Christianity. (Gal. i. 2. 
1 Cor. xvi. i. 1 Tim. iv. 10. 1 Pet. 
i. 1.) 

Galilee, Upper and Lower. See 
p. 163. supra. 

Galilee, Sea of. Seep. 174. supra. 

Gaulonitis. Seep. 164. supra. 

Gaza, a very celebrated city of the 
Jews, distant about 60 miles south- 
west from Jerusalem : it was one of 
the five cities of the Philestin.es, 
which fell by lot to the tribe of Ju- 
dah. (Josh. xv. 47. The city of Gaza, 
mentioned in Acts viii. 26, was erect- 
ed near the site of old Gaza, which, 
after being taken by Alexander the 



Great, was subsequently destroyed 
(b. c. 96,) by Alexander Jannasus, a 
prince of the Jews. 

Gennesareth, the name of a re- 
gion and lake, in the vicinity of 
which were several towns, where 
Jesus Christ dwelt, taught, and per- 
formed miracles. See a notice of the 
lake of Gennesareth in p. 174. su- 
pra. 

Gergesa, a city annexed to Perssa, 
and supposed to have been situated 
in the country adjacent to Gadara. 
(Matt. viii. 28. Luke viii. 26.) 

Gepizim, Mount. See p. 177. su> 
pra. 

Gethsemane, a garden beyond Ke- 
dron, at the foot of Mount Olivet, so 
called from the wine presses in it : 
it is memorable in the evangelical 
history, as being the scene of our 
Saviour's agony. 

Gilead, Mountains of. See p. 236. 
supra. 

Golgotha. See p. 222. supra. 

Gomorrah, one of the cities which 
formerly occupied the region now 
covered by the Dead Sea, for the 
history of its destruction see Gen. 
xix. 

Greece, in the Scriptures, often 
comprehends all the countries inha- 
bited by the descendants of Javan, 
as well in Greece as in Ionia, and 
Asia Minor. Since the time of Alex- 
ander the Great, the name of Greeks 
is taken in a more uncertain and 
enlarged sense, because the Greeks 
being masters of Egypt and Syria, 
of the countries beyond the Eu- 
phrates, &c. the Jews called all 
those Gentiles Greeks. 



Hebron, a city of Judaea, was situ- 
ated on an eminence, twenty miles 
southward of Jerusalem, and twenty 
miles north from Beersheba. It was 
a place of considerable note in the 
early history of the Hebrews. Here 
Zechariah and Elizabeth resided, 
and John the Baptist was born. 

Hierapolis, a city of Phrygia, in 
the vicinity of Colosse and Loadicea. 
(Col. iv. 13.) 

Hinnom, Valley of See p. 238 
supra. 

Holy Land. See p. 213. supra. 

Horeb, a mountain in Arabia Pe- 
traea, so near mount Sinai that Horeb 
and Sinai seem to be two hills of 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



381 



the same mountain. (Exod. iii. 1 — 
3. xvii. 6. 1 Kings xix. 8.) 



Iconium, a large city of Asia Mi- 
nor : here St. Paul preached in the 
Jewish Synagogue, and made many 
proselytes. (Acts xiv. 1—3.) 

Illyricum, a province lying to the 
north and north-west of Macedonia, 
along the eastern coast of the 
Adriatic Gulf, or Gulf of Venice. 
Hither, St. Paul informs Timothy, 
Titus went (2 Tim. iv. 10: and in 
Rom. xv. 19, he says that he preach- 
ed the Gospel from Jerusalem round 
about unto Illyricum. 

Israel, Land of. See p. 159, su- 
pra. 

, Kingdom of. See pp. 162, 

163. supra. 

, Mountains of. Seep. 176, 

supra. 

Iturjea. See p. 164. supra. 



Jabbok, Brook. See p. 173, supra 

Jacob's Well. See p. 233, supra. 

Jericho, a celebrated city in the 
tribe of Benjamin, of which frequent 
mention is made in the New Testa- 
ment : it was about 19 miles distant 
from Jerusalem. The country around 
Jericho was the most fertile part of 
Palestine. In the time of our Sa- 
viour, Jericho was one of the cities 
appropriated for the residence of the 
priests and Levites, 12,000 of whom 
dwelt there ; and as the way thither 
from Jerusalem was rocky and 
desert, it was greatly infested with 
thieves ; this circumstance marks 
the admirable propriety with which 
our Lord made it the scene of his 
beautiful parable of the good Sama- 
ritan. (Luke x. 30 — 37.) It is now 
a miserable village. 

Jerusalem, City of. See pp. 165, 
168. supra. 

Jezreel, Plain of. See p. 179, 
supra. 

Joppa, now called Jaffa, was an- 
ciently the chief part of Judsea: it 
lies on the Mediterranean, about west 
north-west of Jerusalem. This place 
is supposed to be of great antiquity. 
The Gospel was early planted here. 
- (Acts ix., x., xi.) 

Jordan, River. See p. 172, sujpra 



Judah, Desert of. See p. 180, su- 
pra. 

Kingdom of. See p. 162, 

supra. 

Mountains of, 175, 176. 

Wilderness of, 1 80. 

JuD-EA, Country of. See p. 163, 
supra. 



Kana, Brook of. See p. 173, su- 
pra. 

Kedron, Cedron, or Kidron, Brook 
of. See p. 173, supra. 

Kishon, Brook of. See p. 173, 
supra. 

Land of Canaan, 159. 

Holy, 159, 160. 

of Israel, 159. 

of Promise, 159. 

Laodioea, a city of Asia Minor, in 
the vicinity of Colossae and Hierapo- 
lis ; together with which cities it 
was destroyed by an earthquake, 
about a. d. 65 or 66. Not a vestige 
of its former magnificence remains. 
(Col. ii. 1. iv. 13. 15, 16. Rev. i. 11.) 

Lasjea, a maritime city of Crete, 
visited by St. Paul. (Acts xxvii. 8.) 

Lebanon, Mount. See pp. 175, 176, 
supra. 

Libya, a region of Africa, lying 
west of Egypt, on the southern coast 
of the Mediterranean Sea. (Acts 
ii. 10.) 

Lybonia, a region of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the north by Galatia ; 
on the east by Cappadocia ; on the 
south, by Isauria and Cilicia, and 
on the west by Phrygia. Of its va- 
rious cities, Iconium, Derbe, and 
Lystra, are mentioned in Acts xiv. 6. 

Lydda, a large village of Pales- 
tine, not far from Joppa. (Acts ix. 
32. 34. 38.) 

Lystra, a city of Asia Minor, now 
called Latik. (Acts xiv. 6. 8. 10, 11, 
21. xvi. 1.) 



Macedonia, a region lying north 
of Greece Proper : it was bounded 
on the north by the mountains of 
Haemus, on the south by Epirus and 
Achaia, on the east by the^gean, on 
the west by the Ionian and Adriatic 
seas. To this country, whose me- 
tropolis was then Thessalonica, St. 
Peul was called by a vision j (Acts 



382 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



xvi. 9 ;) and the churches planted by 
him in it, are celebrated for their 
great charity, and ready contribu- 
tion to the distressed Jews in Judaea. 
(2 Cor. viii. ix.) 

Magdala, a city and territory be- 
yond Jordan, on the western side of 
the lake Gennesareth. It reached to 
the bridge above Jordan, which 
joined it to the other side of Galilee, 
and contained within its precincts 
Dalmanutha ; hence, while Matthew 
says, (xv. 19,) Christ come into the 
coasts of Magdala, St. Mark says, 
more particularly, (viii. 10,) that he 
came into the parts of Dalmanutha. 

Media, a vast region of Asia, hav- 
ing on the north the Caspian Sea, 
on the West Armenia and Assyria, 
on the south Persia, on the eastHyr- 
cania and Parthia. In the Babylo- 
nian captivity, the Jews were carried 
captive into Assyria, and placed in 
the cities of the Medes. (2 Kings 
xvii. 6. and xviii. 11.) Hence, we 
find many of them and their prose- 
lytes at Jerusalem, when the Holy 
Ghost fell on the apostles. (Actsii. 9.) 

Melite, or Malta, an island in the 
Mediterranean Sea, on which St. 
Paul was wrecked. (Acts xxviii. 1.) 

Mesopotamia, a famous province, 
situated between the rivers Tigris 
and Euphrates. The Hebrews call 
it Aram Naharaim, or Aram of the 
rivers ; because it was first peopled 
by Aram, father of the Syrians, and 
is situated between two rivers. 

Midian, in Arabia Petraea, the land 
into which Moses fled from the 
Egyptians. (Acts vii. 29.) Here Je- 
thro lived. (Exod. xii. 11.) 

Migdol, a frontier town of Lower 
Egypt, toward the Red Sea, between 
which and that sea the Israelites en- 
camped. (Exod. xiv, 1.) 

Miletus, a seaport of Asia Minor, 
and a city of Ionia, where Saint Paul 
delivered to the elders of the church 
of Ephesus, that affecting discourse 
which is recorded in Acts xx. 17 — 
35. There was another Miletus in 
Crete, where St. Paul left Trophi- 
mus sick. (2 Tim. iv. 20.) 

Mitylene, a celebrated city, the 
capital of the island of Lesbos. It 
was visited by St. Paul, as related in 
Acts xx. 14. 

Myra, a city on the coast of Lycia, 
one of the south-western provinces 
of Asia Minor. (Acts xxvii. 5.) 

Mysia, the north-western province 



of Asia Minor. It was bounded on 
the north by Bithynia, on the east 
by Phrygia Minor, on the west by 
Troas, on the south by the river 
Hermus. 



Nain, a small city or town of Ga- 
lilee, not far from Capernaum, at the 
gates of which Jt,6us Christ raised 
to life a widow's only son. (Luke vii 
11—15.) 

Nazareth, a small city of Low- 
er Galilee, celebrated as having 
been the place where our Saviour 
was educated, where he preached 
and whence he was called a Naza- 
rene. 

Nebo. Seep. ITS, supra. 

Nineveh, the metropolis of the 
Assyrian empire. It was celebrated 
for its extent, magnificence, and the 
vast number of its inhabitants. Its 
site can no longer be ascertained. 



Olives, Mount of, a ridge Lying 
east of Jerusalem (of which it had 
a commanding view,) and separated 
from it by the valley of the Cedron. 

Ophir, a country on the eastern 
coast of Africa, (by the Arabians 
termed Zanguebar ;) most probably 
the small country of Sofala, whither 
Solomon sent a fleet aided by the 
subjects of Hiram king of Tyre, and 
from which they brought back gold. 
(1 Kings ix. 27, 28. 2 Chron. viii. 17, 
18.) and also almug trees and pre- 
cious stones. (1 Kings x. 11.) 



Palestine. See page 160, supra. 

Pamphylia, a province of Asia 
Minor, having to the south thePam- 
phylian sea, mentioned Acts xxvii. 
5. Cilicia to the east, Pisidia to the 
north (whence we find Saint Paul 
passing through Pisidia to Pamphy- 
lia, Acts xiv. 24, and from Pamphylia 
to Pisidia, Acts xiii. 14.) and Lycia 
to the west. The cities mentioned 
in the Scripture as belonging to 
it, are Perga and Attalia. (Acts xiii. 
13.) 

Paphos, the metropolis of the 
island of Cyprus (Acts xiii. 4. 6,) 
and the residence of the preccnsui 
Numerous Jews dwelt here. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



383 



Parthians, mentioned in Acts ii. 
9, were Jews, who were bom or re- 
Bided in Parthia, a region of Asia sit- 
uated between Media and Mesopota- 
mia. 

Patara, a maritime city of Lycia, 
mentioned in Acts xxi. 1. 

Patmos, an island in the Mge&n 
Sea, whither the apostle and evange- 
list John was banished, a.d. 94, and 
where he had the revelations which 
he has recorded in the Apocalypse. 

Per^a. See p. 164 supra. 

Pergamus, a city of Mysia, and the 
capital of the powerful kingdom of 
Pergamus : it was celebrated for the 
noble library collected by the kings 
of the race of Attalus. (Rev. i. 11, ii. 
12.) 

Pharpar. See Abana, p. 375. 

Philadelphia, a city of Asia Minor, 
derived its name from its founder, 
Attalus Philadelphus, and is situated 
about twenty-seven miles to the 
south-east of Sardis. Not long before 
the date of the Apocalyptic Epistle, 
this city had suffered so much from 
earthquakes, that it had been in a 
great measure deserted by its inhabi- 
tants ; which may in some degree 
account for thepoverty of this church 
as described in this Epistle. 

Philippi was a city of Macedonia 
Prima, or the first of the four parts 
into which that province was divi- 
ded. It was of moderate extent, and 
situated on the confines of Thrace. 
Christianity was first planted at 
Philippi, by Saint Paul, a.d. 50, the 
particulars of which are related in 
Acts xvi. 9 — 40. 

Philistines. See p. 215, supra. 

Phcenice, or Phoenix a city and 
harbour on the south-eastern coast 
of Crete. (Acts xxvii. 12.) 

Phcenicia, or Phcenice, a narrow 
region of country on the eastern 
coast of the Mediterranean, between 
Judaea and Syria. Its principal cities 
were Ptolemais, Sidon, and Tyre. 

Phrygia, an inland province of 
Asia Minor, bounded on the north by 
Bithynia; on the east by Galatia ; 
on the south by Pamphylia, and 
Lycia ; and on the west by Lydia and 
Mysia. Its chief cities, mentioned 
in the New Testament, are Laodicea 
and Hierapolis. (Col. ii. 1.) 

Pisgah, Mount. See p. 178, supra. 

P'isidia, a region of Asia Minor, 
having Pamphylia on the south, 
Galatia on the north. Isauria on the 



east, and Phrygia on the west. Its 
chief city was Antioch in Pisidia, 
(Acts xiii. 14,) so called to distinguish 
it from Antioch in Syria. — 

Pontus, a province of Asia Minor, 
having the Euxine sea on the north, 
Cappadocia on the south, Paphla- 
gonia and Galatia on the east, and 
the Lesser Armenia on the west. 
(Acts ii. 9. 1 Pet. i. 1.) 

Promise, Land of. Seep. 159 supra. 

Ptolemais, anciently called Accho 
(Judg. i. 31,) and now known by the 
name of Acre, is situated ontheshore 
of the Mediterranean Sea, on the con- 
fines of Lower and Upper Galilee. 
Here St. Paul rested for one day on 
his journey from Ephesus to Jerusa- 
lem. (Acts xxi. 7.) 

Puteoli (at present called Pozzuo- 
lo) a city and haven in the kingdom 
of Naples, eight miles from that city. 
(Acts xxviii. 13.) 



Rama, Ramah, or Ramathaim, a 
small town in the tribe of Benjamin, 
a few miles north of Jerusalem, 
between Gibeah and Bethel. It is 
frequently mentioned in the Old Tes- 
tament. 

Ramoth, a famous city in the 
mountains of Gilead, often called 
Ramoth-gilead, and sometimes Ra- 
moth, and sometimes Ramoth-miz- 
peh, or the Watch-Tower, (Josh, 
xiii. 26.) This city belonged to the 
tribe of Gad. It was assigned to the 
Levites, and was one of the cities of 
refuge beyond Jordan. (Deut. iv 
43. Josh. xx. 8, and xxi. 38.) 

Red Sea, called also the Arabian 
Gulf, separates Egypt on the west 
from Arabia on the east. The name 
in Hebrew signifies the "weedy sea," 
or the sea of weeds; (which appel- 
lation it still retains in the Coptic 
language.) It is thus denominated 
either from the variety of sea- weeds 
said to be visible on its shores at 
low water, or from the quantity of 
white coral, spread everywhere over 
its bottom. We derive the name 
"Red Sea" from the Greeks. Most 
probably this sea was anciently 
called the sea of Edom, from its 
neighbouring coast: and as Edom 
signifies Red in Hebrew, the Greeks, 
not understanding the meaning of 
the appellation, translated it, as we 
have done after them, the Red Sea. 



384 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



Rhegium, a seaport town in Italy, 
opposite to Sicily. (Acts xxviii. 13.) 

Rhodes, the capital of an island 
of the same name, lying off the 
coast of Caria. (Acts. xxi. 1.) 

Rome, the celebrated metropolis 
of the Roman Empire. 



Salt sea. See p. 174, supra. 

Samaria, Region of. Seep. 163, 
supra. 

Samaria, City of the ancient capi- 
tal of the kingdom of Israel, was situ- 
ated on a hill which derived its 
name from Semer or Shemer, of 
w«hom it was purchased by Omri, 
king of Israel, e. c. 921, who made 
it the seat of his government, and 
called it Samaria, (Heb. Shomeron,) 
from its former owner. By his suc- 
cessors it was greatly improved and 
fortified. After having been destroy- 
ed by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, 
and rebuilt during the reign of Alex- 
ander, b. c. 449, it was again de- 
stroyed by John Hyrcanus. It was 
afterwards wholly rebuilt, and con- 
siderably enlarged by Herod, sur- 
named the Great, who gave it the 
name of Sebaste, and erected a tem- 
ple there in honour of the Emperor 
Augustus. 

Samos, an island of the Archipe- 
lago, on the coast of Asia Minor. 
(Acts. xx. 15.) 

Samothracia, an island of the 
jEgean Sea, Saint Paul, departing 
from Troas for Macedonia, arrived 
first at Samothracia, and then landed 
m Macedonia. (Acts xvi. 11.) 

Sardis, the capital of Lydia, was 
situated at the foot of Mount 
Tmolus, on the banks of the river 
Pactolus: it was celebrated for the 
wealth, and for the voluptuous and 
debauched manners of its inhab- 
itants. (Rev. 1. 11, iii. 1. 4.) Sar- 
dis is at present reduced to a mi- 
serable village, called Sart. 

Sarepta, or Zarephath, (Luke iv. 
26,) was a city in the territory of 
Sidon, between that city and Tyre, 
(1 Kings, xvii. 9. Luke iv. 26.) 

Saron, a spacious and fertile vale, 
between Lydda and the se>a, which 
contained several villages. (Acts 
ix. 35.) 

Shushan, the capital of Susiana, 
a province of Elam or Persia, which 
Daniel terms the palace, (viii. 2,) 
oecause the Chaldseean monarchs 



had a royal palace here. This once 
splendid metropolis is now a mere 
wilderness. 

Sichem, Sychar, or Shechem, a 
city of Samaria, about forty miles 
distant from Jerusalem, which be- 
came the metropolis of the Samari- 
tans after the destruction of Samaria 
by Hyrcanus. In the vicinity of 
this place is Jacob's well, (John iv. 
6,) memorable for our Saviour's con- 
versation with the Samaritan wo- 
man. 

Siddim, vale of. See p. 178, supra. 

Sidon, or Zidon, a very ancient 
and celebrated port and city, origi- 
nally the metropolis of Phoenicia, is 
situated on the Mediterranean Sea. 
Sidon has always been famous for 
its great trade and navigation ; at 
present it is called Said. 

Sihor River. See p. 173, supra. 

Silo am, Fountain. See p. 175, 
supra. 

Sinai, a mountain in Arabia 
Petree, where the law was given. 
It had two tops : the one lower, call- 
ed Horeb, or the Mount of God, 
(Exod. iii. 1,) where he appeared to 
Moses in a flame of fire in a bush ; 
this Horeb is therefore called Sinai 
by Saint Stephen. (Acts vii. 30.) 
See Horeb, p. 380, supra. 

Smyrna, a city of Asia Minor, was 
situated between forty and forty-five 
miles to the north of Ephesus, of 
which city it was originally a co- 
lony. It was one of the most opu- 
lent and powerful cities of that re- 
gion ; but is now celebrated chiefly 
for the number, wealth and com- 
merce of the inhabitants. 

Sodom, the chief of the Pentapoli- 
tan cities, or five cities of the plain, 
gave the name to the whole land. 
It was burnt with three other cities, 
by fire from heaven, for the unna- 
tural lusts of their inhabitants. 

Sodom, Sea of. See p. 174, supra. 

Syrta, the name of a large district 
of Asia, lying in the widest accepta- 
tion of the name between Palestine, 
Mount Taurus, and the Tigris, and 
thus including Mesopotamia, or 
Syria of the two rivers, (in Hebrew, 
Aram Naharaim.) In the New Tes- 
tament, Syria may be considered as 
bounded on the west and north-west 
by the Mediterranean Sea, and by 
Mount Taurus ; on the east by the 
Euphrates: and on the south by 
Arabia Deserta and Palestine, or 
rather Judaea, for the name Syria, 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX 



385 



Includes the northern part of Pales- 
tine. The valley between the ridges 
of Libanus and Anti-Libanus. was 
called Coelo-Syria, or Ccele-Syria; 
which appellation was also some- 
times extended to the neighbouring 
country. At the time of the Jewish 
exile, Syria and Phoenicia were sub- 
ject to the king of Babylon, and 
they afterward were tributary to the 
Persian monarchs. After the coun- 
try fell into the hands of the Ro- 
mans, Syria was made the province 
of a proconsul. (Robinson's Gr. and 
English Lexicon to the New Testa- 
ment, p. 731.) 

Syro-Phcenicia is Phoenicia pro- 
perly so called, of which Sidon was 
the capital ; which having by right 
of conquest been united to the king- 
dom of Syria, added its old name 
Phoenicia to that of Syria. The Ca- 
naanitish woman is called a Syro- 
Phoenician, (Mark vii. 26,) because 
she was of Phoenicia, which was 
then considered as making part of 
Syria. St. Matthew calls her a Ca- 
naanitish woman, (Matt. xv. 22. 24,) 
because this country was really 
peopled by the Canaanites, Sidon 
being the eldest son of Canaan. 
(Gen. x. 15.) 

Tabor, or Thabor, Mount. See p. 
177, supra. 

Tarsus, a rich and populous city, 
the capital of Cilicia. It was cele- 
brated in the Scriptures as being the 
place whither Jonah designed to 
flee, and where St. Paul was born. 

Thessalonioa, a large and popu- 
lous city and seaport of Macedonia, 
the capital of one of the four dis- 
tricts into which the Romans divided 
that country after its conquest by 
Paulus iEmilius. It was situated on 
the Thermian Bay, and was ar- 
dently called Thermae; but, being 
rebuilt by Philip, the father of Alex- 
ander, after his victory over the 
Thessalians, it then received the 
name of Thessalonica. It was in- 
habited by Greeks, Romans, and 
Jews ; from among whom St. Paul 
collected a numerous church. (Acts 
xvii. 1. 11. 13.) 

Thyatira, a city of Asia Minor, 
was a considerable city on the road 
from Pergamos to Sardis, and about 
48 miles eastward of the former. It 
is called by the Turks Ak-hisar. 

Tiberius, (John vi. 1—23. xxi. 1,) 
still called by tba natives Tabaria, 



or Tabbareean, was anciently one 
of the principal cities of Galilee : it 
was built by Herod the Great, and 
so called in honour of the emperor 
Tiberius. The privileges conferred 
upon its inhabitants by Herod, caus- 
ed it in a short time to become a 
place of considerable note: it was 
situated in a plain near the lake of 
Gennesareth, which is thence term- 
ed the Lake or Sea of Tiberias; 
for a notice of which see p. 174, 
supra, 

Trachonitis. See p. 1 64, supra. 

Troas, a port and town of Mysia, 
visited by St. Paul in his apostolic 
journeys: it was situated on the 
western coast, at some distance to 
the southward of the supposed site 
of ancient Troy. 

Trogyixium (Acts xx. 15,) a pro- 
montory at the foot of Mount My- 
cale, opposite to, and about five 
miles fix j. Samos. 

Type, a celebrated city and sea- 
port of Phoenicia, that boasted of a 
very early antiquity. Even in the 
time of Joshua it was strongly for- 
tified ; for it is called the strong city 
Tyre. (Josh. xix. 29.) After the time 
of David, Tyre is frequently men- 
tioned in the Old Testament, where 
its inhabitants are represented as 
filled with pride and luxury, and all 
the vices attendant on prosperity 
and immense wealth. Judgments 
are denounced against them by the 
prophets, in consequence of their 
idolatry and wickedness ; and the 
destruction of their city is foretold. 
After this destruction the great body 
of the inhabitants fixed themselves 
on an island opposite the former 
city, about 30 stadia from the main 
land, where they erected another 
city. This also soon became opu- 
lent and powerful : it was taken by 
Alexander the Great, after an obsti- 
nate siege of seven months, in the 
year 332, b. c. After many subse- 
quent reverses of fortune, and vari- 
ous changes of masters, Tyre at 
length fell under the dominion of 
the Romans, and continued to enjoy 
its commercial prosperity. (Robin- 
son's Lexicon, p. 772.) Tyre is now 
a miserable place, called Sur, whose 
inhabitants support themselves by 
fishing. 

Zarephath. See Sarepta. p. 384, 
sunra. 
ZnyoN. See Sidon, p. 384, tupra. 



II 



INDEX OF MATTERS. 



Abreviations in Manuscripts, 74, 75 

Abyssinian Version, 87 

Acts of the Apostles, analysis of, 321, 
322 

Affections of the sacred Writers, im- 
portance of attending to, 126 

Agriculture of the Jews, 262—264 

Alexandrian Manuscript, 75, 76 

Allegory, Nature of, 135 ; Interpreta- 
tion of, 136. Allegorical sense, 
what. 140 

Amos, Book of, 297, 298 

Analogy of Scripture, 118—121 : of 
Faith, 121. Hints for investiga- 
ting it, 121—123 

Anglo-Saxon Version, 89 

Antonius Felix, notice of, 189, 190 

Apocrypha, import of, 310. Analy- 
sis of the Apocryphal Books, 310, 

_ 314 

Apostles and Evangelists, credibility 
of 11—13 

Aquila, Greek Version of, 86 

Archelaus, 187, 188 

Architecture of the Jews, 266 

Areopagus, Tribunal of, 194 

Armenian Version, 87, 88 

Arts and Sciences of the Jews, 265 
—271 

Atonement, fast of, 240 

Authenticity of the Old and New 
Testaments, 4 — 8 



B 



Banishment, a Jewish punishment, 

201 
Baruch, apocryphal book of, 313 
Bel and the Dragon, history of the 

destruction of, 313 
Bible. See Scriptures. 
Bloody Offerings, 231, 232 
Burial, Rites of, 272—275 
Burnt Offerings, 232 



Candlestick, Golden, 217—221 
Canonical Books, what, 78, 79 
Catholic Epistles, Genuineness and 
Authenticity of, 339. Analyses ol 
them, 340—347 
Caverns of the Holy Land, 179 
Chaldee Paraphrases, 82, 83 
Chapters and Verses, Orign of 80, 81. 
List of select chapters of the Holy 
Scriptures, 355—369 
Children, Birth, Education, &c. of, 

256 
Christianity, propagation of, 14 — 43. 
Gibbon's alleged causes of its suc- 
cess, refuted, 44, 45. Its rejection 
by Jews and Gentiles accounted 
for, 45, 46. Its blessed effects up- 
on mankind, 58—60. Its superi- 
ority over all other religions, a 
proof of its divine origin, 60 — 62 
Chronicles, two Books of, 285 
Chronological Table of the principal 
Epochs in the History of the Old 
and New Testament^ 364 — 368 
Climate of the Holy Land, 169 
Codex Alexandrinus, 75, 76. Vati- 
canus, 76, 77. Cantabrigiensis, 78 
Coins, testimony of to the truth of 

Scripture, 21—23 
Colossians, Epistle to, 331 
Commentators, different classes of, 
127. Hints on the best mode of 
consulting them, 128 
Context, use and study of, 116—118 
Contracts, how made, 209 
Corinthians, first Epistle to, 328— 329. 

Second Epistle to them, 329 
Corruptions of Religion among the 

Jews, 245—249 
Courts of Judicature, 191—193 
Credibility of the Old Testament, 
10, 11; and of the New, 11—14. 



INDEX OF MATTERS. 



387 



Testimonies thereto from Natural 
and Civil History, 14—18, and 
from Profane Writers, 19—21. 
Confirmed by Ancient Coins, Me- 
dals, and Marbles, 21—23. Credi- 
bility of Miracles, 27 — 29 

Criminal Law of the Jews, 195—199. 
Execution of Criminals, 192, 193 

Crucifixion, 203 



Daniel, Book of, 305, 306 

Day of Atonement, 240 

Dead, treatment of, 272, 273 

Dedication, feast of, 241 

Deluge, attested by Natural and Ci- 
vil History, 15 — 17 

Demoniacle Possessions, reality of, 
270, 271 

Deserts of the Holy Land, 180, 181 

Deuteronomy, Book of, 280 

Divination, 197 

Diseases mentioned in Scripture, 269 
—271 

Divisions of the Bible, 78—82 

Divorce, 256 

Doctrinal Interpretation of Scripture, 
149—151 

Doctrine of the Patriarchal, Mosaic, 
and Christian Religions, summa- 
ry of, 47—53. Objections of Un- 
believers to, refuted, 53—58 

Domestic Customs of the Jews, 259 
—261 

Dress of the Jews, 253, 254 

Drink Offerings, 234 

Dwellings of the Jews, account of, 
250—252 



Ecclesiastes, Book of, 292 

Ecclesiasticus, Book of, 312 

Egyptian Versions, 87 

Encampments of the Jews, form of, 
211 

English Translations of the Bible, 
97—100 

Ephesians, Epistle to, 330, 331 

Epistolary Writings of the New Tes- 
tament, remarks on, 324—326. 
Analyses of, 326—334 

Esdras, first and second Books of, 
310, 311 

Essenes, sect of, 247, 248 

Esther, Book of, 287. Rest of the 
chapters of the Book of Esther, 311 

Ethiopic Version, 87 

Excommunication, 201 

Exodus, Book of, 277, 278 

Expiation, fast of, 240 



Ezekiel, Book of, 307, 308 
Ezra. Book of. 286 



Felix, account of, 190, 191 
Festivals of the Jews, 237—242 
Festus, account of, 191 
Fertility of the Holy Land, 181 
Figurative Language of Scripture, 

Interpretation of, 129—139 
Firstborn, privileges of, 256 
First Fruits, 235 
Florus, notice of, 191 
Food and Entertainments of the 

Jews, 260, 261 
Fountains of Palestine, 175 
Funeral Rites of the Jews, 273—275 
Furniture of the Jews, 252 



G 



Galatians, Epistle to, 330 

Galileans, sect of, 248 

Gardens of the Jews, 264 

Genesis, Book of, 276, 277 

Genuineness of the Old and New 
Testaments, 4 — 8 

Geography, Historical, of the Holy 
Land, 158. Physical Geography, 
169—181 

Gibbon, (Mr.) objections of, refuted, 
44,45 

Gospel, import of, 315, Summary 
of its Doctrines and Precepts, 50 — 
53. Objection of Unbelievers to 
it, refuted, 53—58. Its beneficial 
effects, a proof of Divine inspira- 
tion, 58—60. Number of the Ca- 
nonical Gospels, 315. Analyses 
of them, 316 

Gothic Version, notice of, 89 

Government, form of, to the Babylo- 
nish Captivity, 182—186; after 
that Captivity, to the end of the 
Jewish Polity, 186—190 

Governors, Roman, powers of, 189 

Greek Language of the New Testa- 
ment, account of, 69, 70. Greek 
Manuscripts, 74 — 78 

Grinding at Mills, 264 



II 



Habakkuk, Book of, 305 
Haggai, Book of, 308, 309 
Happiness of mankind, promoted by 

the Scriptures, 58—60 
Harmony of Scripture, 58. Uses of 

Harmonies. Ill, 112 
Hebraisms, 70 
Hebrew Language, account of, 67— 



388 



INDEX OF MATTERS. 



69. Hebrew Manuscripts, 71—73 

Hebrews, Epistle to, 338, 339 

Herod, the Great, 187 

Antipas, 188 

Agrippa, Senior and Junior, 

188 

Herodians, Sect of, 248 

High Places, 222 

High Priests, account of, 228—230 

Historical Books, Analyses of, 280 — 
288 

Historical Circumstances, impor- 
tance of, for the interpretation of 
Scripture, 123—126 

Historical Sense, 113 

Holy Land, Names of, 158—160. 
Boundaries, 161. Ancient Inhabi- 
tants, 161. Divisions, 162—168. 
Physical Geography, 169—181 

Hosea, Book of, 298, 299 

Houses of the Jews, 250 — 252 

Hyperbole. 140 



Idolatry of the Jews. 195, 196. 245, 
246 

Imprisonment, 200 

Incense, offering, 234, 235 

Infidelity, unprofitableness of, 62, 63. 
Infidels more credulous than Chris- 
tians, 63, 64 

Inspiration defined, 24. Criteria of 
24, 25. Internal Evidences of, 47 
—64 

Interpretation of Literal, Grammati- 
cal, or Historical Sense of Scrip- 
ture, and its subsidiary means, 
113—128. Interpretation of the 
figurative Language of Scripture, 
129—139. Spiritual interpreta- 
tion 140 — 144. Interpretation of 
Prophecy, 144 — 149. Doctrinal, 
Moral, and Practical Interpreta- 
tion of Scripture, 149—157. 

Irony, 139, 140 

Isaiah, Book of, 299—301 



James, Epistle of, 340, 341 

Jeremiah, Analysis of the Book of, 
303, 304. Lamentations of, 305 

Jerusalem, Description of, 165 — 168 

Jewish Church and its Members, 
225, 226 

Jews infidelity of, accounted for, 45, 
Political state of, to the Babylo- 
nish Captivity, 182—186. And 
after that time to their destruc- 
tion, as a Nation, 186—189. Cor- 
ruptions of Religion among, 246 



249. Domestic Antiquities of, 
250 375 

Job, Book of, 288, 289 

Joel, Book of, 301 

John, (St.) Account of, 319. Design 
and Analysis of his Gospel, 320, 
321. Of his first Epistle, 343— 
345. Of his second and third Epis- 
ties, 345, 346. And of his Revela- 
tion, 347, 349 

Jonah, Book of, 297 

Joshua, Book of, 281 

Jubilee, Year of, 241, 242 

Jude, Epistle of, 346, 347 

Judges, Book of, 281 

Judges, powers of, 283 

Judicature, Jewish Courts of, 191 — 
193. Roman Courts of, 193—195 

Judith, Book of, 311 



Kings, (Israelitish,) powers and reve- 
nues of, 183—185. Duration of 
the monarchies of Israel and Ju- 
dah, 186 

Kings, two Books of, 283, 284 



Languages (Original) of Scripture, 

account of, 67, 70 
Latin Versions, ancient, 88. Modern, 

88, 89 
Latinisms, 170 
Lawyers, 248 

Legal Proceedings, 191—193 
Leprosy, 245 

Letters, form of, in Manuscript 
Levites, account of, 227 
Leviticus, Book of, 278 
Libertines, 226, 227 
List of the most necessary works for 

the study of the Scriptures, 363— 

367 
Literal Sense, what, 113 
Luke (St.) Gospel of, 318, 319. Acts 

of the Apostles written by him, 

321, 322 



M 



Maccabees, 186, 187. Apocryphal 

books of, 314 
Magistrates, crimes against, 197 
Malachi, Book of, 309, 310 
Man, creation and fall of, 15 
Manasses, apocryphal prayer of, 314 
Manstealing, punishment of, 198 
Manuscripts, (Hebrew) of the Old 
Testament, account of, 71 — 73. Ob- 
servations on Greek Manuscripts, 



INDEX OF MATTERS. 



389 



7^ 75. Manuscripts of the Old 
and New Testaments, 75 — 78 

I» T ark (St.) Gospel o<", 317, 318 

Carriage customs of the Jews 254 
—256 

Masora, notice of, 79 

Matthew (St.) Account of, and of his 
Gospel, 316, 317 

Measures, table of, 351, 352 

Meat Offerings, 234 

Medicine, state of, among the Jews, 
269, 270 

Messiah, Table of Prophecies con- 
cerning, 368, et seq. Observations 
on the accomplishment of those 
Prophecies, 148, 149 

Metaphors, interpretation of, 134, 
135 

Metonymy, nature of, 131. Inter- 
pretation of Metonymies, 131 — 134 
Micah, Book of, 301, 302 

Military Affairs of the Jews and 
other Nations, 209—213 

Miracle, denned, 25. Evidence of 
25, 26. Design, 26. Credibility, 
27—29. Criteria of, 29, 30. Ex- 
amination of some of the Old Tes- 
tament Miracles, 30 ; and of the 
New Testament Miracles, 30—34 ; 
particularly of Christ's Resurrec- 
tion, 34, 36. Comparison of Scrip- 
ture Miracles with those ascribed 
to Heathens, 37 

Mohammedism, prevalence of no 
objection to prophesy, 46 

Money, tables of, 352 

Months of the Jews, 205 

Moral Parts of Scripture, Interpreta- 
tion of, 151, 152 

Morality of the Patriarchal Religion, 
48. Of the Jewish Code, 49, 50. 
Of the Gospel, 51— 53. Objections 
of Unbelievers to the Morality of 
the Bible, refuted, 53—58 

Moses, Credibility of, as a writer, 10, 
1 1. Summary of the Doctrine and 
Morals taught by him, 49, 50 

Mountains of Palestine, 1 75—178 

Music of the Jews, 268, 269 

Mystical Sense of Scripture, 140. 
Rules for the Mystical Interpreta- 
tion of Scripture, 141, 142 



N 



Nahum, Book of, 302, 303 
Nazareate, vow of, 243 
Nazarites, 230, 243 
Nehemiah, Book of, 286, 287 
New Moon, feast of, 237 
New Testament, Genuineness and 
Authenticity of, 6—8. Its uncor- 



rupted Preservation, 8—10. Cre- 
dibility, 11—14. Confirmed by 
profane Writers, 19 — 21. And by 
ancient Coins, Medals, and Mar- 
bles, 21—23. Why written in 
Greek, 69. Account of its style 
and idioms, 69, 70. Origin of 
Chapters and Verses in, 80. Ana- 
lyses of the several Books of, 315 
—349. Table of their dates, 353 
Numbers, Book of, 278, 279 



Oaths, 242 

Obadiah, Book of, 306, 307 

Oblations, voluntary and prescri- 
bed, 235 

Old Testament, Genuineness and 
Authenticity of, 4 — 6. Its uncor- 
rupted Preservation, 8, 9. Its 
Credibility, 10, 11. Confirmed by 
natural and civil History, 14 — 18. 
And by Ancient Coins, &c„ 21. 
Divisions of, 78 — 80. Analyses of 
the several Books of, 276—314, 
See Manuscripts, Versions. 

Olympic Games, allusions to, 272 

Origen's Biblical Labours, notice of, 
84, 85 



Parables, nature of, 136, 137. In- 
terpretation of, 137, 138 
Parabolic sense, 141 
Parallel Passages, use of, for intei- 

preting Scripture, 118—121 
Nature of Parallelism, especially the 

poetical parallelism, 108—111 
Parents, crimes against, 197 
Parenthesis, importance of, 118 
Passover, Feast of, 238 
Patriarchal Religion, summary of, 

48. Government, 182 
Paul, (St.) brief account of, 323, 324. 

Analysis of his Epistles, 324, 339 
Peace Offerings, 232, 233 
Pentateuch, observations on, 276. 

Analysis of the several Books of, 

276—280 
Pentecost, feast of, 239 
Persian Version, 88 
Peter, (St.) first Epistle of, 341, 342. 

Second Epistle of, 343 
Pharisees, sect of, 247 
Philemon, Epistle to, 337 
Philippians, Epistle to, 331, 
Pilate, account of, 189 
Plains of the Holy Land, 179 
Poetry of the Hebrews, nature and 

species ol 108—111—267,268. An- 



390 



LSDEX OF MATTERS 



alyses of the poetical books, 253— 
294 

Practical reading of Scripture, 155 
—157 

Prayer, 237 

Preservation (uncurrupted) of Old 
and New Testaments, 8 — 10. A 
proof of their divine origin, 58 

Priests, account of. 227, 228 

Prisoners, treatment of, among the 
Romans, 194 

Promises and Thveatenings of Scrip- 
ture, interpretation of, 152—154 

Property, crimes against, 198 

Prophets, account of, 230,231. Gene- 
ral observations on, and on their 
writings, 294, 295. Table of, 296. 
Analyses of the prophetical books, 
297—310 

Prophecy defined, 37. Difference 
between the pretended predictions 
of heathen oracles, and the Scrip- 
ture prophecies, 37, 38. Use and 
intent of Prophecy, 38. Prophecies 
relating to the Jews, 39 — 41. To 
the nations or empires neighbour- 
ing to them, 41, 42. Prophecies 
directly announcing the Messiah. 
42. Prophecies by Jesus Christ 
and his apostles, 43. Objections 
to prophecy refuted, 45 — 47. Rules 
for ascertaining the sense of the 
prophetic writings, 145 — 147. On 
the accomplishment of Scripture 
prophecy, 147. Particularly re- 
specting the Messiah, 143. Table 
of the principal prophecies rela- 
tive to the Messiah, 468, et seq. 

Proselytes, 226 

Proseuchae or Oratories of the Jews, 
223 

Proverbs of Scripture, interpretation 
of, 138, 139 

Proverbs, Book of, 291, 292 

Psalms, Book of, 289—291. Table 
of, according to their subjects, 354 

Publicans, 203 

Punishments mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, 200—203 

Purifications of the Jews, 244, 245 

Purim, Feast of, 240 



Quotations from the Old Testament 
in the New, 102. Tables thereof, 
102—107 



Rechabites, notice of, 230 



Resurrection, evidences of the truth 

of, 34—36 
Revelation, (Divine) necessity of, 1 

—3 
Revelation of St. John, analysis of 

tire Book of, 447—449 
Revenues of the Israelitish Kings, 

185 
Rivers of the Holy Land, 172, 173 
Roman mode of treating prisoners, 

194; of computing Time, 204. Al 

lusions to the Roman Discipline, 

213 
Romans, Epistle to, analysis of, 327, 

327 
Ruth, Book of, 282 



S 



Sabbath, how solemnized, 236, 237 

Sabbatical Year, 241 

Sacred Obligations and Duties, 242 
—245 

Sacred Persons, 225—231 

Sacred Places, 214—225 

Sacred Things, 231—235 

Sacred Times and Seasons, 236 — 242 

Sacrifices of the Jews, 231—234 

Sadducees, sect of, 246 

Salutations, form of, 259 

Sanhedrin, powers of, 191 

Samaritans and Samaritan Penta- 
teuch, account of, 68, 69 

Samuel, Two Books of, 282, 283 

Sciences of the Jews, 265 — 271 

Scalvonic Version, S9 

Scope defined, 115. Hints for ascer- 
taining it, 116 

Scourging, 200 

Scribes, 248 

Scriptures, genuineness and authen- 
ticity of, 1 — 8. Their uncorrupt- 
ed Preservation, 8 — 10—58. Cre- 
dibility, 10—23. Inspiration, 24. 
External proofs of: — Miracles, 25 
—37. And Prophecy, 37—47. In- 
ternal Evidences of, 54 — 62. Ina- 
bility to answer all objections, no 
just cause for rejecting them, 63. 
Moral Qualifications for reading 
of them, 66. Literary History and 
Criticism of, 67 — 112. Interpreta- 
tion of Scripture, 112 — 154. Prac- 
tical Reading of Scripture, 154 — 
157. Table of Select Chapters of, 
355—363 

Seas of the Holy Land, 173, 174 

Seasons of the Holy Land, 169 — 171 

Sects of the Jews, 246—248 

Septuagint Version, history of, 84— 
66 



INDEX Of MATTERS. 



391 



Shew-Bread, Table of, 221—234 

Sicarii, 248 

Sin Offerings, 200 

Slaves, condition of, 257, 258 

Slaying with the Sword, 201 

Solomon, Proverbs of, 291, 292. Apo- 
cryphal Book of, 312 

Song of Solomon, analysis of, 293, 
294 

Song of the three Children, 313 

Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture, 
140—142 

Spiritual Sense of Scripture, 146. 
Rules for the interpretation of, 
141, 142 

Stoning, 202 

Subscriptions to Booka of New Tes- 
tament, 81, 82 

Susanna, apocryphal Book of, 313 

Symmachus, Greek Version of, 86 

Synagogues of the Jews, and the 
mode of worship there, 223—225. 
Representation of a Synagogue 
Roll of the Pentateuch, 71. De- 
scription of it, 71 

Synedoche, 139 

Syriac Versions, 86, 87 

Syriasms, 70 



Tabernacle, account of, 214—216 

Tabernacles, feast of, 239 

Targums, notice of, 82, 83 

Temple of Jerusalem ; the first, 218. 
The second, 218—223. Its minis- 
ters, 226—230 

Testament. See Old and New Tes- 
tament 

Theatrical Performances, allusions 
to, in the New Testament, 271. 
272 

Theft, punishment of, 198 

Theocracy, 182 

Theodotion, Greek Version of, 86 

Thessalonians, first Epistle to, 332, 
333. Second Epistle to, 333 

Time, computation of, 204 — 207 

Timothy, first Epistle to, 334, 335. 
Second Epistle to, 335, 336 

Tithes, 235, 

Titus, Epistle to, 336. 337 

Tobit, Book of, 311 

Trespass Offerings, 233 

Tributes and Taxes, 208 

Tropes and Figures, interpretation 
of, 129—131 

Trumpets, feast of, 240 

Types, interpretation of, 142—144 



Typical Sense of Scripture, 141 
U 

Unbelievers, Objections of, to the 
doctrines and moral precepts of 
the Bible, refuted, 53—58 

Unbloody Sacrifices, 234 

Unclean, who were deemed so, 244 



Valleys of Palestine, 178, 179 

Various Readings, Origin, and Na- 
ture of, 100, 101 

Vatican Manuscript, 76, 77 

Verses, origin of, 80, 81 

Versions, Ancient, of the Scriptures, 
82. Chaldee, 82, 83. Greek, 83— 
86. Oriental, 86, 88. Western, 
88, 89. Use of Ancient Versions, 
90. Modern Versions, 90. Modern 
Latin Versions, 90—92. Tables of 
Versions in the Modern Languages 
of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Ame- 
rica, 94—96. Account of English 
Versions, 97—100 

Visits of the Jews, 260 

Vows, different kinds of, 242—244 

Vulgate Latin Version, 88, 89 



w 



Watches, a division of time, 204 

Weeks, 205 

Weights and Measures, table of, 351, 

352 
Wildernesses of Palestine, 179,180 
Winter in the Holy Land, 170 
Wisdom of Solomon, apocryphal 

Book of, 312; and of Jesus the 

son of Sirach, 312, 313 
Words, Rules for investigating the 

meaning of, generally, 114, 115. 

Aids for investigating the mean- 
ing of Words, 115—128 
Writing, art of, among the Jews, 

266. 267. 



Year, sacred and civil, of the Jews, 
206 

Z 

Zealots, 248 

Zechariah, Book of, 309 
Zephaniah, Book of, 303 



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